diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/constants.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/constants.ts
index f752377fb4f..f790f81eefb 100644
--- a/src/agents/auth-profiles/constants.ts
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/constants.ts
@@ -23,6 +23,34 @@ export const AUTH_STORE_LOCK_OPTIONS = {
   stale: 30_000,
 } as const;
 
+// Separate from AUTH_STORE_LOCK_OPTIONS for independent tuning: this lock
+// serializes the cross-agent OAuth refresh (see issue #26322), whereas
+// AUTH_STORE_LOCK_OPTIONS guards per-store file writes. Keeping them
+// distinct lets us widen the refresh lock's timeout/retry budget without
+// affecting the hot-path auth-store writers.
+//
+// Invariant: OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS < OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS.stale
+// so a legitimate refresh's critical section always finishes well before
+// peers would treat the lock as reclaimable. Violating this invariant re-
+// introduces the `refresh_token_reused` race the lock is meant to prevent.
+export const OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS = {
+  retries: {
+    retries: 10,
+    factor: 2,
+    minTimeout: 100,
+    maxTimeout: 10_000,
+    randomize: true,
+  },
+  stale: 180_000,
+} as const;
+
+// Hard upper bound on a single OAuth refresh call (plugin hook + HTTP
+// token-exchange). Any refresh that runs longer than this is aborted and
+// surfaced as a refresh failure. Keep strictly below
+// OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS.stale so the lock is never treated as stale
+// by a waiter while the owner is still doing legitimate work.
+export const OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS = 120_000;
+
 export const EXTERNAL_CLI_SYNC_TTL_MS = 15 * 60 * 1000;
 export const EXTERNAL_CLI_NEAR_EXPIRY_MS = 10 * 60 * 1000;
 
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-identity.test.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-identity.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..44f020c0566
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-identity.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,465 @@
+import { describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
+import {
+  isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity,
+  isSameOAuthIdentity,
+  normalizeAuthEmailToken,
+  normalizeAuthIdentityToken,
+} from "./oauth.js";
+
+// Direct unit + fuzz tests for the cross-agent credential-mirroring identity
+// gate introduced for #26322 (CWE-284). These helpers are on the hot-path of
+// `mirrorRefreshedCredentialIntoMainStore` and must be strictly correct: a
+// false positive means a sub-agent could poison the main-agent auth store.
+
+describe("normalizeAuthIdentityToken", () => {
+  it("returns trimmed value when non-empty", () => {
+    expect(normalizeAuthIdentityToken("acct-123")).toBe("acct-123");
+    expect(normalizeAuthIdentityToken("  acct-123  ")).toBe("acct-123");
+  });
+
+  it("returns undefined for undefined, empty, or whitespace-only input", () => {
+    expect(normalizeAuthIdentityToken(undefined)).toBeUndefined();
+    expect(normalizeAuthIdentityToken("")).toBeUndefined();
+    expect(normalizeAuthIdentityToken("   ")).toBeUndefined();
+    expect(normalizeAuthIdentityToken("\t\n\r")).toBeUndefined();
+  });
+
+  it("preserves case (accountIds are case-sensitive)", () => {
+    expect(normalizeAuthIdentityToken("Acct-ABC")).toBe("Acct-ABC");
+    expect(normalizeAuthIdentityToken("acct-abc")).toBe("acct-abc");
+  });
+});
+
+describe("normalizeAuthEmailToken", () => {
+  it("lowercases and trims email", () => {
+    expect(normalizeAuthEmailToken("USER@Example.COM")).toBe("user@example.com");
+    expect(normalizeAuthEmailToken("  user@example.com  ")).toBe("user@example.com");
+  });
+
+  it("returns undefined for undefined/empty/whitespace", () => {
+    expect(normalizeAuthEmailToken(undefined)).toBeUndefined();
+    expect(normalizeAuthEmailToken("")).toBeUndefined();
+    expect(normalizeAuthEmailToken("   ")).toBeUndefined();
+  });
+
+  it("preserves internal plus-addressing and unicode", () => {
+    expect(normalizeAuthEmailToken("User+Tag@Example.com")).toBe("user+tag@example.com");
+    expect(normalizeAuthEmailToken("  JOSÉ@Example.com ")).toBe("josé@example.com");
+  });
+});
+
+describe("isSameOAuthIdentity", () => {
+  describe("accountId takes priority when present on both sides", () => {
+    it("returns true when accountIds match", () => {
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "acct-1" }, { accountId: "acct-1" })).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("returns true for accountId match even if emails differ", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSameOAuthIdentity(
+          { accountId: "acct-1", email: "a@example.com" },
+          { accountId: "acct-1", email: "b@example.com" },
+        ),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("returns false when accountIds mismatch, ignoring email", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSameOAuthIdentity(
+          { accountId: "acct-1", email: "same@example.com" },
+          { accountId: "acct-2", email: "same@example.com" },
+        ),
+      ).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("treats whitespace-equal accountIds as same", () => {
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "  acct-1  " }, { accountId: "acct-1" })).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("accountId is case-sensitive", () => {
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "Acct-1" }, { accountId: "acct-1" })).toBe(false);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("email fallback when accountId missing on either side", () => {
+    it("returns true when emails match (case-insensitive)", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSameOAuthIdentity({ email: "user@example.com" }, { email: "USER@Example.COM" }),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("returns false when emails mismatch", () => {
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ email: "a@example.com" }, { email: "b@example.com" })).toBe(
+        false,
+      );
+    });
+
+    it("matches when main has accountId+email and incoming has only matching email", () => {
+      // Not asymmetric: both sides carry identity (main has more, but
+      // incoming still has email). Email is a shared field with a
+      // matching value — positive-identity match, safe to mirror.
+      expect(
+        isSameOAuthIdentity(
+          { accountId: "acct-1", email: "user@example.com" },
+          { email: "user@example.com" },
+        ),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("matches when accountIds on one side are whitespace-only and both sides expose matching email", () => {
+      // Whitespace-only accountId is treated as absent; email falls back
+      // symmetrically on both sides so the positive email match wins.
+      expect(
+        isSameOAuthIdentity(
+          { accountId: "   ", email: "user@example.com" },
+          { accountId: "", email: "USER@example.com" },
+        ),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("asymmetric identity evidence is refused", () => {
+    it("refuses when main has accountId and incoming has neither", () => {
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "acct-1" }, {})).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("refuses when main has email and incoming has neither", () => {
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ email: "user@example.com" }, {})).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("refuses when incoming has identity but main does not", () => {
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({}, { accountId: "acct-1" })).toBe(false);
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({}, { email: "user@example.com" })).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("refuses when main has only accountId and incoming has only email (non-overlapping fields)", () => {
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "acct-1" }, { email: "user@example.com" })).toBe(
+        false,
+      );
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("no identity metadata on either side", () => {
+    it("returns true (no evidence of mismatch) when both sides lack accountId and email", () => {
+      // This matches the looser behaviour of the pre-existing
+      // adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential gate; provider equality is the
+      // caller's responsibility.
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({}, {})).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("returns true when one side has empty strings for both fields", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSameOAuthIdentity(
+          { accountId: "", email: "" },
+          { accountId: undefined, email: undefined },
+        ),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("reflexivity and symmetry", () => {
+    it("is reflexive: share(a,a) === true for any non-conflicting identity", () => {
+      const a = { accountId: "acct-1", email: "a@example.com" };
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity(a, a)).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("is symmetric: share(a,b) === share(b,a)", () => {
+      const a = { accountId: "acct-1" };
+      const b = { accountId: "acct-2" };
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity(a, b)).toBe(isSameOAuthIdentity(b, a));
+    });
+  });
+});
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Fuzz tests. Seeded Mulberry32 so the run is reproducible.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+function makeSeededRandom(seed: number): () => number {
+  let t = seed >>> 0;
+  return () => {
+    t = (t + 0x6d2b79f5) >>> 0;
+    let r = t;
+    r = Math.imul(r ^ (r >>> 15), r | 1);
+    r ^= r + Math.imul(r ^ (r >>> 7), r | 61);
+    return ((r ^ (r >>> 14)) >>> 0) / 4294967296;
+  };
+}
+
+function randomString(rng: () => number, maxLen: number): string {
+  const len = Math.floor(rng() * maxLen);
+  const chars: string[] = [];
+  for (let i = 0; i < len; i += 1) {
+    chars.push(String.fromCodePoint(32 + Math.floor(rng() * 95))); // printable ASCII
+  }
+  return chars.join("");
+}
+
+function maybe<T>(rng: () => number, value: T): T | undefined {
+  return rng() < 0.5 ? value : undefined;
+}
+
+describe("isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity (unified copy gate, used for mirror and adopt)", () => {
+  describe("positive matches", () => {
+    it("accepts matching accountIds", () => {
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "x" }, { accountId: "x" })).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("accepts matching emails (case-insensitive)", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ email: "u@example.com" }, { email: "U@Example.com" }),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("accepts when both sides expose identical identity across accountId + email", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(
+          { accountId: "x", email: "u@example.com" },
+          { accountId: "x", email: "u@example.com" },
+        ),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("upgrade tolerance (primary motivator)", () => {
+    it("accepts existing-no-identity adopting incoming-with-accountId", () => {
+      // The #26322 upgrade case: existing cred predates accountId capture,
+      // incoming has it. Must allow or the fix regresses on existing installs.
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({}, { accountId: "x" })).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("accepts existing-no-identity adopting incoming-with-email", () => {
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({}, { email: "u@example.com" })).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("accepts when both sides lack identity metadata", () => {
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({}, {})).toBe(true);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("identity regression is refused (incoming drops existing's identity)", () => {
+    it("refuses when incoming has no identity and existing has accountId", () => {
+      // Was previously allowed under the permissive relaxed rule; the
+      // narrower rule refuses because it would strip identity evidence.
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "x" }, {})).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("refuses when incoming has no identity and existing has email", () => {
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ email: "u@example.com" }, {})).toBe(false);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("non-overlapping identity fields are refused", () => {
+    it("refuses when existing has only accountId and incoming has only email", () => {
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "x" }, { email: "u@example.com" })).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("refuses when existing has only email and incoming has only accountId", () => {
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ email: "u@example.com" }, { accountId: "x" })).toBe(false);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("positive mismatch still refuses (CWE-284 protection)", () => {
+    it("refuses mismatching accountIds even when emails match", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(
+          { accountId: "a", email: "u@example.com" },
+          { accountId: "b", email: "u@example.com" },
+        ),
+      ).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("refuses mismatching emails when both sides expose only email", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ email: "a@example.com" }, { email: "b@example.com" }),
+      ).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("accountId is case-sensitive", () => {
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "X" }, { accountId: "x" })).toBe(false);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("normalization", () => {
+    it("ignores surrounding whitespace on accountId", () => {
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "  acct-1  " }, { accountId: "acct-1" })).toBe(
+        true,
+      );
+    });
+
+    it("ignores email case and whitespace", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ email: "  U@Example.com  " }, { email: "u@example.com" }),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("treats empty/whitespace-only identity as absent (allowed to upgrade)", () => {
+      expect(
+        isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "   ", email: "" }, { accountId: "acct-main" }),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("reflexivity", () => {
+    it("is reflexive", () => {
+      const a = { accountId: "acct-1", email: "u@example.com" };
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(a, a)).toBe(true);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("relationship to the strict isSameOAuthIdentity reference", () => {
+    it("is at least as permissive as the strict rule (strict implies safe-to-copy)", () => {
+      // Pure-symmetric match cases accepted by the strict rule must also
+      // be accepted by the unified copy gate.
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "x" }, { accountId: "x" })).toBe(true);
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "x" }, { accountId: "x" })).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("only relaxes the strict rule in the pure-upgrade direction", () => {
+      // Existing has no identity, incoming has identity: strict refuses,
+      // unified accepts.
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({}, { accountId: "x" })).toBe(false);
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({}, { accountId: "x" })).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("does NOT relax in the regression direction (strict and unified both refuse)", () => {
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "x" }, {})).toBe(false);
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ accountId: "x" }, {})).toBe(false);
+    });
+  });
+});
+describe("isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity fuzz", () => {
+  function makeSeededRandom(seed: number): () => number {
+    let t = seed >>> 0;
+    return () => {
+      t = (t + 0x6d2b79f5) >>> 0;
+      let r = t;
+      r = Math.imul(r ^ (r >>> 15), r | 1);
+      r ^= r + Math.imul(r ^ (r >>> 7), r | 61);
+      return ((r ^ (r >>> 14)) >>> 0) / 4294967296;
+    };
+  }
+
+  function randomString(rng: () => number, maxLen: number): string {
+    const len = Math.floor(rng() * maxLen);
+    const chars: string[] = [];
+    for (let i = 0; i < len; i += 1) {
+      chars.push(String.fromCodePoint(32 + Math.floor(rng() * 95)));
+    }
+    return chars.join("");
+  }
+
+  function maybe<T>(rng: () => number, value: T): T | undefined {
+    return rng() < 0.5 ? value : undefined;
+  }
+
+  it("is reflexive: share(a, a) is always true", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0x0172_0417);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i += 1) {
+      const a = {
+        accountId: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 64)),
+        email: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 64)),
+      };
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(a, a)).toBe(true);
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("always refuses distinct non-empty accountIds (primary CWE-284 invariant)", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0xfaceb00c);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 500; i += 1) {
+      const idA = `A-${randomString(rng, 32) || "x"}`;
+      const idB = `B-${randomString(rng, 32) || "y"}`;
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity({ accountId: idA }, { accountId: idB })).toBe(false);
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("strict → unified: if isSameOAuthIdentity accepts, isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity accepts", () => {
+    // Monotonic relaxation property over random inputs.
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0x7777_7777);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i += 1) {
+      const a = {
+        accountId: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 32)),
+        email: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 32)),
+      };
+      const b = {
+        accountId: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 32)),
+        email: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 32)),
+      };
+      if (isSameOAuthIdentity(a, b)) {
+        expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(a, b)).toBe(true);
+      }
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("unified rule never refuses a same-account pair and never accepts a different-account pair", () => {
+    // Over random identity pairs that share accountId but vary in every
+    // other field, the gate must always accept. Over pairs with distinct
+    // non-empty accountIds it must always refuse.
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0x9a_9b_9c_9d);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 500; i += 1) {
+      const shared = `acct-${randomString(rng, 32) || "x"}`;
+      const a = {
+        accountId: shared,
+        email: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 32)),
+      };
+      const b = {
+        accountId: shared,
+        email: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 32)),
+      };
+      expect(isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(a, b)).toBe(true);
+    }
+  });
+});
+
+describe("isSameOAuthIdentity fuzz", () => {
+  it("is always symmetric regardless of input shape", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0x0426_0417);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i += 1) {
+      const a = {
+        accountId: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 64)),
+        email: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 64)),
+      };
+      const b = {
+        accountId: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 64)),
+        email: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 64)),
+      };
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity(a, b)).toBe(isSameOAuthIdentity(b, a));
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("is always reflexive: share(a, a) is true", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0x1234_abcd);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i += 1) {
+      const a = {
+        accountId: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 64)),
+        email: maybe(rng, randomString(rng, 64)),
+      };
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity(a, a)).toBe(true);
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("never returns true for distinct non-empty accountIds (regardless of email)", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0xfeedc0de);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 500; i += 1) {
+      const idA = `A-${randomString(rng, 32) || "x"}`;
+      const idB = `B-${randomString(rng, 32) || "y"}`;
+      // Shared email; mismatched accountId must still refuse.
+      const email = `${randomString(rng, 16) || "u"}@example.com`;
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ accountId: idA, email }, { accountId: idB, email })).toBe(false);
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("email comparison is case-insensitive for random email bodies", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0xcafef00d);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 500; i += 1) {
+      const local = randomString(rng, 16).replace(/[^A-Za-z0-9+._-]/g, "") || "user";
+      const domain = (randomString(rng, 12).replace(/[^A-Za-z0-9.-]/g, "") || "example") + ".com";
+      const email = `${local}@${domain}`;
+      const randomizedCase = email
+        .split("")
+        .map((c) => (rng() < 0.5 ? c.toUpperCase() : c.toLowerCase()))
+        .join("");
+      expect(isSameOAuthIdentity({ email }, { email: randomizedCase })).toBe(true);
+    }
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-lock-path.test.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-lock-path.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3fe645e521f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-lock-path.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+import fs from "node:fs/promises";
+import os from "node:os";
+import path from "node:path";
+import { afterEach, beforeEach, describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
+import { captureEnv } from "../../test-utils/env.js";
+import { resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath } from "./paths.js";
+
+describe("resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath", () => {
+  const envSnapshot = captureEnv(["OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR"]);
+  let stateDir = "";
+
+  beforeEach(async () => {
+    stateDir = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), "openclaw-auth-lock-path-"));
+    process.env.OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR = stateDir;
+  });
+
+  afterEach(async () => {
+    envSnapshot.restore();
+    await fs.rm(stateDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
+  });
+
+  it("keeps lock paths inside the oauth-refresh directory for dot-segment ids", () => {
+    const refreshLockDir = path.join(stateDir, "locks", "oauth-refresh");
+    const dotSegmentPath = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", "..");
+    const currentDirPath = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", ".");
+
+    expect(path.dirname(dotSegmentPath)).toBe(refreshLockDir);
+    expect(path.dirname(currentDirPath)).toBe(refreshLockDir);
+    expect(path.basename(dotSegmentPath)).toMatch(/^sha256-[0-9a-f]{64}$/);
+    expect(path.basename(currentDirPath)).toMatch(/^sha256-[0-9a-f]{64}$/);
+    expect(path.basename(dotSegmentPath)).not.toBe(path.basename(currentDirPath));
+  });
+
+  it("hashes profile ids so distinct values stay distinct", () => {
+    expect(resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", "openai-codex:work/test")).not.toBe(
+      resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", "openai-codex_work:test"),
+    );
+    // Unicode normalization / collation corner cases must still hash distinctly.
+    expect(resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", "«c")).not.toBe(
+      resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", "઼"),
+    );
+  });
+
+  it("hashes distinct providers to distinct paths for the same profileId", () => {
+    // The new (provider, profileId) keying is the whole point of P2 from
+    // review: a shared profileId across providers must not collide.
+    expect(resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", "shared:default")).not.toBe(
+      resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("anthropic", "shared:default"),
+    );
+  });
+
+  it("is immune to simple concat collisions at the provider/profile boundary", () => {
+    // With a plain `${provider}:${profileId}` hash input, the pair
+    // ("a", "b:c") would collide with ("a:b", "c"). The NUL separator
+    // in the hash input rules that out.
+    expect(resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("a", "b:c")).not.toBe(
+      resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("a:b", "c"),
+    );
+  });
+
+  it("keeps lock filenames short for long profile ids", () => {
+    const longProfileId = `openai-codex:${"x".repeat(512)}`;
+    const basename = path.basename(resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", longProfileId));
+
+    expect(basename).toMatch(/^sha256-[0-9a-f]{64}$/);
+    expect(Buffer.byteLength(basename, "utf8")).toBeLessThan(255);
+  });
+
+  it("is deterministic: same (provider, profileId) produces the same path", () => {
+    const first = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", "openai-codex:default");
+    const second = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", "openai-codex:default");
+    expect(first).toBe(second);
+  });
+
+  it("returns a valid path on a clean install where the locks/ directory does not yet exist", async () => {
+    // Defensive check: even on a fresh install with no lock hierarchy
+    // populated, the function must return a safe path. withFileLock
+    // internally creates missing parent dirs, but this test pins the
+    // expectation so a future change to remove that guarantee would
+    // fail loudly.
+    const locksDir = path.join(stateDir, "locks", "oauth-refresh");
+    // Sanity precondition: parent dir must not exist yet.
+    await expect(fs.stat(locksDir)).rejects.toThrow();
+
+    const resolved = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", "openai-codex:default");
+    expect(path.dirname(resolved)).toBe(locksDir);
+    expect(path.basename(resolved)).toMatch(/^sha256-[0-9a-f]{64}$/);
+    // Function itself must not create the directory (path resolver only).
+    await expect(fs.stat(locksDir)).rejects.toThrow();
+  });
+
+  it("never embeds path separators or .. in the basename", () => {
+    const hazards = [
+      ["openai-codex", "../etc/passwd"],
+      ["openai-codex", "../../../../secrets"],
+      ["openai-codex", "openai\\codex"],
+      ["openai-codex", "openai/codex/default"],
+      ["openai-codex", "profile\x00with-null"],
+      ["openai-codex", "profile\nwith-newline"],
+      ["openai-codex", "profile with spaces"],
+      ["../../etc", "passwd"],
+      ["provider\x00with-null", "default"],
+    ] as const;
+    for (const [provider, id] of hazards) {
+      const basename = path.basename(resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath(provider, id));
+      expect(basename).toMatch(/^sha256-[0-9a-f]{64}$/);
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("/");
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("\\");
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("..");
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("\x00");
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("\n");
+    }
+  });
+});
+
+describe("resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath fuzz", () => {
+  const envSnapshot = captureEnv(["OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR"]);
+  let stateDir = "";
+
+  beforeEach(async () => {
+    stateDir = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), "openclaw-auth-lock-path-fuzz-"));
+    process.env.OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR = stateDir;
+  });
+
+  afterEach(async () => {
+    envSnapshot.restore();
+    await fs.rm(stateDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
+  });
+
+  function makeSeededRandom(seed: number): () => number {
+    // Mulberry32 — small, stable, seedable PRNG so the fuzz run is reproducible
+    // even if the suite later becomes picky about test ordering.
+    let t = seed >>> 0;
+    return () => {
+      t = (t + 0x6d2b79f5) >>> 0;
+      let r = t;
+      r = Math.imul(r ^ (r >>> 15), r | 1);
+      r ^= r + Math.imul(r ^ (r >>> 7), r | 61);
+      return ((r ^ (r >>> 14)) >>> 0) / 4294967296;
+    };
+  }
+
+  function randomProfileId(rng: () => number, maxLen: number): string {
+    const len = Math.floor(rng() * maxLen);
+    const chars: string[] = [];
+    for (let i = 0; i < len; i += 1) {
+      // Cover BMP + surrogate-pair range + control chars + ASCII + path hazards.
+      const category = Math.floor(rng() * 5);
+      const code =
+        category === 0
+          ? Math.floor(rng() * 128) // ASCII
+          : category === 1
+            ? Math.floor(rng() * 32) // control chars (including \0, \n, \r, etc.)
+            : category === 2
+              ? 0x10000 + Math.floor(rng() * 0xeffff) // supplementary planes
+              : category === 3
+                ? Math.floor(rng() * 0xd800) // BMP non-surrogate
+                : 0x0f00 + Math.floor(rng() * 0x0100); // misc unicode
+      chars.push(String.fromCodePoint(code));
+    }
+    return chars.join("");
+  }
+
+  it("always produces a basename that matches sha256-<hex64> regardless of input", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0x2026_0417);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 500; i += 1) {
+      const provider = randomProfileId(rng, 64) || "openai-codex";
+      const id = randomProfileId(rng, 4096);
+      const basename = path.basename(resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath(provider, id));
+      expect(basename).toMatch(/^sha256-[0-9a-f]{64}$/);
+      expect(Buffer.byteLength(basename, "utf8")).toBeLessThan(255);
+      // sha256-<64 hex> = 71 chars, no path hazards. Explicit substring
+      // checks (no control-char regex) to keep lint happy.
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("\\");
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("/");
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("\u0000");
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("\n");
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("\r");
+      expect(basename).not.toContain("..");
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("always resolves to a path inside <stateDir>/locks/oauth-refresh", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0xdecafbad);
+    const expectedDir = path.join(stateDir, "locks", "oauth-refresh");
+    for (let i = 0; i < 200; i += 1) {
+      const provider = randomProfileId(rng, 32) || "openai-codex";
+      const id = randomProfileId(rng, 1024);
+      const resolved = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath(provider, id);
+      expect(path.dirname(resolved)).toBe(expectedDir);
+      // Normalized path must still live under the expected directory — defense
+      // against any future change that lets a profile id escape the scope.
+      expect(path.normalize(resolved).startsWith(expectedDir + path.sep)).toBe(true);
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("distinct (provider, profileId) inputs produce distinct outputs over a large random sample", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0x1234_5678);
+    const seen = new Map<string, string>();
+    let collisions = 0;
+    for (let i = 0; i < 2000; i += 1) {
+      const provider = randomProfileId(rng, 32) || "p";
+      const id = randomProfileId(rng, 256);
+      const composite = `${provider}\u0000${id}`;
+      const resolved = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath(provider, id);
+      const existing = seen.get(resolved);
+      if (existing !== undefined && existing !== composite) {
+        collisions += 1;
+      }
+      seen.set(resolved, composite);
+    }
+    expect(collisions).toBe(0);
+  });
+
+  it("holding provider fixed, distinct profileIds never collide", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0xf00dbabe);
+    const seen = new Map<string, string>();
+    let collisions = 0;
+    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i += 1) {
+      const id = randomProfileId(rng, 128) || `id-${i}`;
+      const resolved = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath("openai-codex", id);
+      const existing = seen.get(resolved);
+      if (existing !== undefined && existing !== id) {
+        collisions += 1;
+      }
+      seen.set(resolved, id);
+    }
+    expect(collisions).toBe(0);
+  });
+
+  it("holding profileId fixed, distinct providers never collide", () => {
+    const rng = makeSeededRandom(0xbad1d00d);
+    const seen = new Map<string, string>();
+    let collisions = 0;
+    for (let i = 0; i < 500; i += 1) {
+      const provider = randomProfileId(rng, 64) || `provider-${i}`;
+      const resolved = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath(provider, "shared-profile-id");
+      const existing = seen.get(resolved);
+      if (existing !== undefined && existing !== provider) {
+        collisions += 1;
+      }
+      seen.set(resolved, provider);
+    }
+    expect(collisions).toBe(0);
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-refresh-error.test.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-refresh-error.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..ed5e939c1ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-refresh-error.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+import { describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
+import { isRefreshTokenReusedError } from "./oauth.js";
+
+// Direct tests for the refresh_token_reused classifier. This is the gate that
+// triggers the retry/adoption recovery path; a false negative here means we
+// fail over to an expensive model instead of adopting the winner's fresh
+// token.
+
+describe("isRefreshTokenReusedError", () => {
+  describe("positive cases", () => {
+    it("detects the canonical OAuth snake_case code", () => {
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error("refresh_token_reused"))).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("detects mixed-case variants", () => {
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error("REFRESH_TOKEN_REUSED"))).toBe(true);
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error("Refresh_Token_Reused"))).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("detects OpenAI-style natural-language variants", () => {
+      expect(
+        isRefreshTokenReusedError(
+          new Error("Your refresh token has already been used to generate a new access token."),
+        ),
+      ).toBe(true);
+      expect(
+        isRefreshTokenReusedError(
+          new Error("The refresh token has already been used to generate a new access token."),
+        ),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("detects full JSON-wrapped 401 payloads", () => {
+      expect(
+        isRefreshTokenReusedError(
+          new Error(
+            '401 {"error":{"message":"Your refresh token has already been used to generate a new access token.","type":"invalid_request_error","code":"refresh_token_reused"}}',
+          ),
+        ),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("detects when message is a plain string (non-Error throw)", () => {
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError("refresh_token_reused")).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("detects when message is wrapped via Error.cause (single level)", () => {
+      // formatErrorMessage traverses the .cause chain and concatenates
+      // messages with " | ", so a marker hidden in the cause still counts.
+      const inner = new Error("refresh_token_reused");
+      const outer = new Error("OAuth token refresh failed", { cause: inner });
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(outer)).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("detects when message is wrapped in a multi-level cause chain", () => {
+      const root = new Error("already been used to generate a new access token");
+      const mid = new Error("plugin adapter failure", { cause: root });
+      const outer = new Error("OAuth token refresh failed", { cause: mid });
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(outer)).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("detects when cause is a bare string (no Error wrapper)", () => {
+      const outer = new Error("upstream", { cause: "refresh_token_reused" });
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(outer)).toBe(true);
+    });
+
+    it("still matches when the marker phrase is embedded in a longer message", () => {
+      expect(
+        isRefreshTokenReusedError(
+          new Error("auth failed: already been used to generate a new access token (retry)"),
+        ),
+      ).toBe(true);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("negative cases", () => {
+    it("returns false for unrelated auth errors", () => {
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error("invalid_grant"))).toBe(false);
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error("HTTP 500 Internal Server Error"))).toBe(false);
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error("network timeout"))).toBe(false);
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error("expired or revoked"))).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("returns false for null/undefined/non-stringable values", () => {
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(null)).toBe(false);
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(undefined)).toBe(false);
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(42)).toBe(false);
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError({})).toBe(false);
+    });
+
+    it("returns false for an empty error message", () => {
+      expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error(""))).toBe(false);
+    });
+  });
+
+  describe("fuzz: random noisy messages", () => {
+    function makeSeededRandom(seed: number): () => number {
+      let t = seed >>> 0;
+      return () => {
+        t = (t + 0x6d2b79f5) >>> 0;
+        let r = t;
+        r = Math.imul(r ^ (r >>> 15), r | 1);
+        r ^= r + Math.imul(r ^ (r >>> 7), r | 61);
+        return ((r ^ (r >>> 14)) >>> 0) / 4294967296;
+      };
+    }
+
+    function randomJunk(rng: () => number, maxLen: number): string {
+      const len = Math.floor(rng() * maxLen);
+      const chars: string[] = [];
+      for (let i = 0; i < len; i += 1) {
+        chars.push(String.fromCodePoint(32 + Math.floor(rng() * 95)));
+      }
+      return chars.join("");
+    }
+
+    function randomlyCased(s: string, rng: () => number): string {
+      return s
+        .split("")
+        .map((c) => (rng() < 0.5 ? c.toUpperCase() : c.toLowerCase()))
+        .join("");
+    }
+
+    it("always detects the marker when embedded at random positions with noise", () => {
+      const rng = makeSeededRandom(0xabad1dea);
+      const markers = [
+        "refresh_token_reused",
+        "Your refresh token has already been used to generate a new access token",
+        "already been used to generate a new access token",
+      ];
+      for (let i = 0; i < 500; i += 1) {
+        const marker = randomlyCased(markers[i % markers.length], rng);
+        const prefix = randomJunk(rng, 64);
+        const suffix = randomJunk(rng, 64);
+        const msg = `${prefix}${marker}${suffix}`;
+        expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error(msg))).toBe(true);
+        // Same for plain-string throws.
+        expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(msg)).toBe(true);
+      }
+    });
+
+    it("never yields a false positive on marker-free random messages", () => {
+      const rng = makeSeededRandom(0x1337_beef);
+      for (let i = 0; i < 500; i += 1) {
+        // Bound length so we never randomly emit one of the marker substrings.
+        const msg = randomJunk(rng, 32);
+        if (
+          msg.toLowerCase().includes("refresh_token_reused") ||
+          msg.toLowerCase().includes("refresh token has already been used") ||
+          msg.toLowerCase().includes("already been used to generate a new access token")
+        ) {
+          // Extremely unlikely with 32-char random junk; skip if it happens.
+          continue;
+        }
+        expect(isRefreshTokenReusedError(new Error(msg))).toBe(false);
+      }
+    });
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-refresh-queue.test.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-refresh-queue.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b759c66c0f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-refresh-queue.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+import fs from "node:fs/promises";
+import os from "node:os";
+import path from "node:path";
+import { afterEach, beforeEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import { resetFileLockStateForTest } from "../../infra/file-lock.js";
+import { captureEnv } from "../../test-utils/env.js";
+import {
+  clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots,
+  ensureAuthProfileStore,
+  saveAuthProfileStore,
+} from "./store.js";
+import type { AuthProfileStore, OAuthCredential } from "./types.js";
+
+let resolveApiKeyForProfile: typeof import("./oauth.js").resolveApiKeyForProfile;
+let resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest: typeof import("./oauth.js").resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest;
+
+async function loadOAuthModuleForTest() {
+  ({ resolveApiKeyForProfile, resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest } = await import("./oauth.js"));
+}
+
+const {
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock,
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock,
+} = vi.hoisted(() => ({
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock: vi.fn(
+    async (_params?: { context?: unknown }) => undefined,
+  ),
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock: vi.fn(() => undefined),
+}));
+
+vi.mock("../cli-credentials.js", () => ({
+  readCodexCliCredentialsCached: () => null,
+  readMiniMaxCliCredentialsCached: () => null,
+  resetCliCredentialCachesForTest: () => undefined,
+  writeCodexCliCredentials: () => true,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("../../plugins/provider-runtime.runtime.js", () => ({
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPlugin: (params: { context?: { access?: string } }) =>
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock() ?? params?.context?.access,
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin: refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("./doctor.js", () => ({
+  formatAuthDoctorHint: async () => undefined,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("./external-cli-sync.js", () => ({
+  syncExternalCliCredentials: () => false,
+  readManagedExternalCliCredential: () => null,
+  areOAuthCredentialsEquivalent: (a: unknown, b: unknown) => a === b,
+}));
+
+function createExpiredOauthStore(params: {
+  profileId: string;
+  provider: string;
+}): AuthProfileStore {
+  return {
+    version: 1,
+    profiles: {
+      [params.profileId]: {
+        type: "oauth",
+        provider: params.provider,
+        access: "stale-access",
+        refresh: "stale-refresh",
+        expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+      } satisfies OAuthCredential,
+    },
+  };
+}
+
+describe("OAuth refresh in-process queue", () => {
+  const envSnapshot = captureEnv(["OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR"]);
+  let tempRoot = "";
+  let agentDir = "";
+
+  beforeEach(async () => {
+    resetFileLockStateForTest();
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockReset();
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock.mockReset();
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock.mockReturnValue(undefined);
+    clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots();
+    tempRoot = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), "openclaw-oauth-queue-"));
+    process.env.OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR = tempRoot;
+    agentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "main", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(agentDir, { recursive: true });
+    await loadOAuthModuleForTest();
+    resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+  });
+
+  afterEach(async () => {
+    envSnapshot.restore();
+    resetFileLockStateForTest();
+    clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots();
+    if (resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest) {
+      resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+    }
+    if (tempRoot) {
+      await fs.rm(tempRoot, { recursive: true, force: true });
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("serializes concurrent same-PID callers FIFO", async () => {
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider }), agentDir);
+
+    const order: number[] = [];
+    let seq = 0;
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementation(async () => {
+      const n = ++seq;
+      order.push(n);
+      // Small delay so concurrent callers have time to interleave if they can.
+      await new Promise((r) => setTimeout(r, 10));
+      return {
+        type: "oauth",
+        provider,
+        access: `refreshed-${n}`,
+        refresh: `refreshed-refresh-${n}`,
+        // Each refresh returns a token already expired again, so the next
+        // queued caller also proceeds to refresh (proves the queue releases
+        // cleanly and the next caller actually runs).
+        expires: Date.now() - 1_000,
+      } as never;
+    });
+
+    // Fire three resolves concurrently against the same agent+profile.
+    const results = await Promise.all([
+      resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+        store: ensureAuthProfileStore(agentDir),
+        profileId,
+        agentDir,
+      }).catch((e) => e),
+      resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+        store: ensureAuthProfileStore(agentDir),
+        profileId,
+        agentDir,
+      }).catch((e) => e),
+      resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+        store: ensureAuthProfileStore(agentDir),
+        profileId,
+        agentDir,
+      }).catch((e) => e),
+    ]);
+
+    // All three should have completed in order (FIFO queue).
+    expect(order).toEqual([1, 2, 3]);
+    expect(results).toHaveLength(3);
+  });
+
+  it("releases the queue even when the refresh throws", async () => {
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider }), agentDir);
+
+    let callCount = 0;
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementation(async () => {
+      callCount += 1;
+      if (callCount === 1) {
+        throw new Error("simulated upstream failure");
+      }
+      // Second caller must actually get a chance to run (proves the gate
+      // released despite the first caller throwing).
+      return {
+        type: "oauth",
+        provider,
+        access: "second-try-access",
+        refresh: "second-try-refresh",
+        expires: Date.now() + 60_000,
+      } as never;
+    });
+
+    const [first, second] = await Promise.all([
+      resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+        store: ensureAuthProfileStore(agentDir),
+        profileId,
+        agentDir,
+      }).catch((e) => e),
+      resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+        store: ensureAuthProfileStore(agentDir),
+        profileId,
+        agentDir,
+      }).catch((e) => e),
+    ]);
+
+    expect(first).toBeInstanceOf(Error);
+    expect(callCount).toBeGreaterThanOrEqual(1);
+    // Second caller was not blocked forever \u2014 it either got the fresh token
+    // (if the queue let it run) or adopted from main. Either way, it resolved.
+    expect(second).toBeDefined();
+  });
+
+  it("resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest drains pending gates", async () => {
+    // We can't observe the internal map, but we can assert that calling the
+    // reset is idempotent and safe from any state.
+    resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+    resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+    expect(true).toBe(true);
+  });
+
+  it("serializes a 10-caller burst so later arrivals never pass an earlier caller", async () => {
+    // Burst-arrival stress: 10 same-PID callers all fire concurrently.
+    // The queue must chain them so each refresh completes fully before the
+    // next one begins — i.e. no overlap between running refresh calls.
+    // This pins the invariant that the map-overwrite pattern in the queue
+    // wrapper does not let later arrivals skip ahead (see review P2: the
+    // `refreshQueues.set(key, gate)` overwrites only the *map head*, while
+    // FIFO ordering is enforced via the `await prev` chain).
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider }), agentDir);
+
+    const startOrder: number[] = [];
+    const endOrder: number[] = [];
+    let inFlight = 0;
+    let maxInFlight = 0;
+    let seq = 0;
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementation(async () => {
+      const n = ++seq;
+      startOrder.push(n);
+      inFlight += 1;
+      maxInFlight = Math.max(maxInFlight, inFlight);
+      // Small delay so any non-serialized overlap would be observable.
+      await new Promise((r) => setTimeout(r, 5));
+      inFlight -= 1;
+      endOrder.push(n);
+      return {
+        type: "oauth",
+        provider,
+        access: `refreshed-${n}`,
+        refresh: `refresh-${n}`,
+        // Re-expire immediately so each queued caller also enters the
+        // refresh path (otherwise later callers would adopt the fresh
+        // cred and the serialization chain wouldn't be exercised).
+        expires: Date.now() - 1_000,
+      } as never;
+    });
+
+    const results = await Promise.all(
+      Array.from({ length: 10 }, () =>
+        resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+          store: ensureAuthProfileStore(agentDir),
+          profileId,
+          agentDir,
+        }).catch((e: unknown) => e),
+      ),
+    );
+
+    // Every caller must have run to completion (null result or error —
+    // either is fine; what matters is that no caller is lost or blocked).
+    expect(results).toHaveLength(10);
+    // FIFO: start order matches end order (no overlap – each caller fully
+    // completed before the next started).
+    expect(startOrder).toEqual(endOrder);
+    // At no point did two refresh calls run concurrently.
+    expect(maxInFlight).toBe(1);
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-refresh-timeout.test.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-refresh-timeout.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..b9827362deb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth-refresh-timeout.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+import { describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
+import { OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS, OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS } from "./constants.js";
+
+// Invariant tests for the two constants that together bound the OAuth
+// refresh critical section. Behavioural tests for the inner `setTimeout`
+// mechanics are deliberately omitted: the implementation is a thin
+// `Promise.race` around `setTimeout`, and exercising it end-to-end requires
+// stepping through nested file-lock I/O that mixes awkwardly with Vitest
+// fake timers. A regression in the timeout wiring would be caught by the
+// #26322 regression test (oauth.concurrent-20-agents.test.ts) because a
+// stuck refresh would time out the whole suite.
+
+describe("OAuth refresh call timeout (invariants)", () => {
+  it("OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS is strictly below OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS.stale", () => {
+    // The whole point of the two constants: the refresh call must always
+    // finish (or time out) before peers would consider the lock reclaimable.
+    // If this invariant ever regresses, the #26322 race can come back.
+    expect(OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS).toBeLessThan(OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS.stale);
+  });
+
+  it("OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS has a reasonable floor for OAuth token exchanges", () => {
+    // 30s is a sane lower bound: typical OAuth refresh RTT is <5s, but a
+    // cold TCP/TLS handshake + plugin bootstrap can push into double-digit
+    // seconds. Anything below 30s would start false-positive aborting.
+    expect(OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS).toBeGreaterThanOrEqual(30_000);
+  });
+
+  it("OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS.stale leaves a generous safety margin beyond the call timeout", () => {
+    // Require at least 30s of headroom between the refresh deadline and
+    // the stale threshold: enough to cover normal scheduling jitter and
+    // the file-lock release round-trip without letting peers reclaim a
+    // still-active lock.
+    expect(OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS.stale - OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS).toBeGreaterThanOrEqual(
+      30_000,
+    );
+  });
+
+  it("OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS.stale is well above the slow-refresh ceiling", () => {
+    // Sanity check: the stale window must clearly exceed a plausible slow-
+    // refresh ceiling (60s) so waiting agents never prematurely reclaim a
+    // lock during a legitimate slow-but-successful refresh.
+    expect(OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS.stale).toBeGreaterThan(60_000);
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.adopt-identity.test.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.adopt-identity.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..a07980940f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.adopt-identity.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,662 @@
+import fs from "node:fs/promises";
+import os from "node:os";
+import path from "node:path";
+import { afterEach, beforeEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import { resetFileLockStateForTest } from "../../infra/file-lock.js";
+import { captureEnv } from "../../test-utils/env.js";
+import {
+  clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots,
+  ensureAuthProfileStore,
+  saveAuthProfileStore,
+} from "./store.js";
+import type { AuthProfileStore, OAuthCredential } from "./types.js";
+
+// Cross-account-leak defense-in-depth: the three adopt sites in oauth.ts
+// now all call isSameOAuthIdentity before copying main-store credentials
+// into the sub-agent store. This suite exercises each of those sites
+// with a mismatched accountId on main vs. sub and asserts the adoption
+// is refused (sub store keeps its own credential; main's creds do not
+// leak through).
+
+let resolveApiKeyForProfile: typeof import("./oauth.js").resolveApiKeyForProfile;
+let resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest: typeof import("./oauth.js").resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest;
+
+async function loadOAuthModuleForTest() {
+  ({ resolveApiKeyForProfile, resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest } = await import("./oauth.js"));
+}
+
+const {
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock,
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock,
+} = vi.hoisted(() => ({
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock: vi.fn(
+    async (_params?: { context?: unknown }) => undefined,
+  ),
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock: vi.fn(() => undefined),
+}));
+
+vi.mock("../cli-credentials.js", () => ({
+  readCodexCliCredentialsCached: () => null,
+  readMiniMaxCliCredentialsCached: () => null,
+  resetCliCredentialCachesForTest: () => undefined,
+  writeCodexCliCredentials: () => true,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("../../plugins/provider-runtime.runtime.js", () => ({
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPlugin: (params: { context?: { access?: string } }) =>
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock() ?? params?.context?.access,
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin: refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("./doctor.js", () => ({
+  formatAuthDoctorHint: async () => undefined,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("./external-cli-sync.js", () => ({
+  syncExternalCliCredentials: () => false,
+  readManagedExternalCliCredential: () => null,
+  areOAuthCredentialsEquivalent: (a: unknown, b: unknown) => a === b,
+}));
+
+function oauthCred(params: {
+  provider: string;
+  access: string;
+  refresh: string;
+  expires: number;
+  accountId?: string;
+  email?: string;
+}): OAuthCredential {
+  return { type: "oauth", ...params };
+}
+
+function storeWith(profileId: string, cred: OAuthCredential): AuthProfileStore {
+  return { version: 1, profiles: { [profileId]: cred } };
+}
+
+describe("OAuth credential adoption is identity-gated", () => {
+  const envSnapshot = captureEnv(["OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR"]);
+  let tempRoot = "";
+  let mainAgentDir = "";
+
+  beforeEach(async () => {
+    resetFileLockStateForTest();
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockReset();
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock.mockReset();
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock.mockReturnValue(undefined);
+    clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots();
+    tempRoot = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), "openclaw-oauth-adopt-identity-"));
+    process.env.OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR = tempRoot;
+    mainAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "main", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(mainAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    await loadOAuthModuleForTest();
+    resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+  });
+
+  afterEach(async () => {
+    envSnapshot.restore();
+    resetFileLockStateForTest();
+    clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots();
+    if (resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest) {
+      resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+    }
+    if (tempRoot) {
+      await fs.rm(tempRoot, { recursive: true, force: true });
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential refuses to adopt across accountId mismatch (pre-refresh path)", async () => {
+    // Scenario: sub-agent starts with a still-valid OAuth cred (so no
+    // refresh is triggered), but main holds an even fresher cred for a
+    // different account. The pre-refresh adopt must refuse.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const subExpiry = Date.now() + 10 * 60 * 1000;
+    const mainFresher = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-prerefresh", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-own-access",
+          refresh: "sub-own-refresh",
+          expires: subExpiry,
+          accountId: "acct-sub",
+        }),
+      ),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "main-foreign-access",
+          refresh: "main-foreign-refresh",
+          expires: mainFresher,
+          accountId: "acct-other",
+        }),
+      ),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    // Sub-agent must keep using its own access token, not main's foreign one.
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("sub-own-access");
+
+    // Sub-agent store must NOT have been overwritten with main's foreign cred.
+    const subRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(subAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(subRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "sub-own-access",
+      accountId: "acct-sub",
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("inside-the-lock main adoption refuses across accountId mismatch and proceeds to own refresh", async () => {
+    // Scenario: sub-agent's cred is expired, enters refreshOAuthTokenWithLock.
+    // Inside the lock, main holds FRESH creds for a DIFFERENT account. The
+    // inside-lock adopt branch must refuse and fall through to the HTTP
+    // refresh path using the sub-agent's own refresh token.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-insidelock", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-stale-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refresh-token",
+          expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          accountId: "acct-sub",
+        }),
+      ),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "main-foreign-access",
+          refresh: "main-foreign-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          accountId: "acct-other",
+        }),
+      ),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          accountId: "acct-sub",
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    // Sub-agent performed its own refresh (mock fired once) and got its
+    // own new token, not main's foreign one.
+    expect(refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("sub-refreshed-access");
+
+    // Main must still hold its foreign cred, untouched (mirror would also
+    // refuse because of identity mismatch).
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "main-foreign-access",
+      accountId: "acct-other",
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential still adopts when sub has no identity but main does (upgrade tolerance)", async () => {
+    // Scenario: sub-agent stored its cred before accountId/email were
+    // captured. Main has fresh cred with accountId. Under the STRICT rule
+    // this would refuse (asymmetric). Under the relaxed rule used for
+    // adoption it must allow — otherwise #26322 breaks for existing
+    // installs on upgrade.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const subExpiry = Date.now() + 10 * 60 * 1000;
+    const mainFresher = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-upgrade", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-own-access",
+          refresh: "sub-own-refresh",
+          expires: subExpiry,
+          // no accountId / email — pre-capture state
+        }),
+      ),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "main-fresher-access",
+          refresh: "main-fresher-refresh",
+          expires: mainFresher,
+          accountId: "acct-main",
+        }),
+      ),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    // Sub must have adopted main's fresher credential.
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("main-fresher-access");
+
+    const subRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(subAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(subRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "main-fresher-access",
+      accountId: "acct-main",
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("inside-the-lock adopt tolerates sub-no-identity / main-has-identity (upgrade case)", async () => {
+    // Same upgrade scenario but entering via the inside-lock adopt path:
+    // sub cred is EXPIRED (forces entry into refreshOAuthTokenWithLock),
+    // main has FRESH cred with accountId, sub has no identity.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-insidelock-upgrade", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-stale-access",
+          refresh: "sub-stale-refresh",
+          expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          // no identity metadata
+        }),
+      ),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "main-fresh-access",
+          refresh: "main-fresh-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          accountId: "acct-main",
+        }),
+      ),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    // Plugin refresh must NOT be called — sub should adopt main's fresh
+    // cred rather than performing its own refresh.
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    expect(refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("main-fresh-access");
+  });
+
+  it("adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential refuses non-overlapping identity fields (sub has accountId, main has email)", async () => {
+    // Reviewer-requested: with no COMPARABLE shared identity field there
+    // is no positive-match evidence, so adoption must refuse.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const subExpiry = Date.now() + 10 * 60 * 1000;
+    const mainFresher = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-nonoverlap-pre", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-own-access",
+          refresh: "sub-own-refresh",
+          expires: subExpiry,
+          accountId: "acct-sub",
+          // NO email on sub
+        }),
+      ),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "main-fresher-access",
+          refresh: "main-fresher-refresh",
+          expires: mainFresher,
+          email: "main@example.com",
+          // NO accountId on main
+        }),
+      ),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    // Sub must keep its own credential; pre-refresh adopt is refused.
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("sub-own-access");
+
+    const subRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(subAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(subRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "sub-own-access",
+      accountId: "acct-sub",
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("inside-the-lock adopt refuses non-overlapping identity fields (sub has accountId, main has email)", async () => {
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-nonoverlap-inside", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-stale-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refresh-token",
+          expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          accountId: "acct-sub",
+        }),
+      ),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "main-fresh-access",
+          refresh: "main-fresh-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          email: "main@example.com",
+        }),
+      ),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          accountId: "acct-sub",
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    // Sub performed its own refresh rather than adopting main's email-only cred.
+    expect(refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("sub-refreshed-access");
+  });
+
+  it("catch-block main-inherit refuses non-overlapping identity fields", async () => {
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-nonoverlap-catch", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-stale-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refresh-token",
+          expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          accountId: "acct-sub",
+        }),
+      ),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "main-stale-access",
+          refresh: "main-stale-refresh",
+          expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          email: "main@example.com",
+        }),
+      ),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(async () => {
+      // Another process writes a fresh email-only cred into main while
+      // our refresh is in-flight, then we throw a generic upstream error.
+      saveAuthProfileStore(
+        storeWith(
+          profileId,
+          oauthCred({
+            provider,
+            access: "main-refreshed-access",
+            refresh: "main-refreshed-refresh",
+            expires: freshExpiry,
+            email: "main@example.com",
+          }),
+        ),
+        mainAgentDir,
+      );
+      throw new Error("upstream 503 service unavailable");
+    });
+
+    // Catch-block main-inherit must refuse the non-overlapping cred and
+    // propagate the original error rather than leaking main's credential.
+    await expect(
+      resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+        store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+        profileId,
+        agentDir: subAgentDir,
+      }),
+    ).rejects.toThrow(/OAuth token refresh failed for openai-codex/);
+  });
+
+  it("catch-block main-inherit tolerates sub-no-identity / main-has-identity (upgrade case)", async () => {
+    // Upgrade scenario hitting the catch-block fallback: sub refresh
+    // throws, main later carries fresh cred with identity. Sub must
+    // inherit rather than surface the error to the caller.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-catch-upgrade", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-stale-access",
+          refresh: "sub-stale-refresh",
+          expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          // no identity metadata
+        }),
+      ),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "main-stale-access",
+          refresh: "main-stale-refresh",
+          expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          accountId: "acct-main",
+        }),
+      ),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(async () => {
+      // Another process refreshes main while our refresh is in flight.
+      saveAuthProfileStore(
+        storeWith(
+          profileId,
+          oauthCred({
+            provider,
+            access: "main-refreshed-access",
+            refresh: "main-refreshed-refresh",
+            expires: freshExpiry,
+            accountId: "acct-main",
+          }),
+        ),
+        mainAgentDir,
+      );
+      throw new Error("upstream 503 service unavailable");
+    });
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    // Sub inherited main's fresh cred via the catch-block fallback.
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("main-refreshed-access");
+  });
+
+  it("catch-block main-inherit refuses across accountId mismatch and surfaces the original error", async () => {
+    // Scenario: sub-agent refresh throws a non-refresh_token_reused error.
+    // Main has fresh creds for a DIFFERENT account. The catch-block
+    // main-inherit fallback must refuse to adopt and let the original
+    // error propagate (wrapped).
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-catch-refuse", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-stale",
+          refresh: "sub-refresh-token",
+          expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          accountId: "acct-sub",
+        }),
+      ),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      storeWith(
+        profileId,
+        oauthCred({
+          provider,
+          access: "main-foreign-access",
+          refresh: "main-foreign-refresh",
+          expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          accountId: "acct-other",
+        }),
+      ),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(async () => {
+      // Simulate another process writing fresh creds to main for a
+      // DIFFERENT account while our refresh is in flight, then our
+      // refresh throws a generic upstream error.
+      saveAuthProfileStore(
+        storeWith(
+          profileId,
+          oauthCred({
+            provider,
+            access: "main-foreign-refreshed",
+            refresh: "main-foreign-refresh-new",
+            expires: freshExpiry,
+            accountId: "acct-other",
+          }),
+        ),
+        mainAgentDir,
+      );
+      throw new Error("upstream 503 service unavailable");
+    });
+
+    await expect(
+      resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+        store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+        profileId,
+        agentDir: subAgentDir,
+      }),
+    ).rejects.toThrow(/OAuth token refresh failed for openai-codex/);
+
+    // Sub-agent store must still have its own stale cred \u2014 no leak.
+    const subRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(subAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(subRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "sub-stale",
+      accountId: "acct-sub",
+    });
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.concurrent-20-agents.test.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.concurrent-20-agents.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c4836e84e31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.concurrent-20-agents.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,170 @@
+import fs from "node:fs/promises";
+import os from "node:os";
+import path from "node:path";
+import { afterEach, beforeEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import { resetFileLockStateForTest } from "../../infra/file-lock.js";
+import { captureEnv } from "../../test-utils/env.js";
+import {
+  clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots,
+  ensureAuthProfileStore,
+  saveAuthProfileStore,
+} from "./store.js";
+import type { AuthProfileStore, OAuthCredential } from "./types.js";
+
+let resolveApiKeyForProfile: typeof import("./oauth.js").resolveApiKeyForProfile;
+let resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest: typeof import("./oauth.js").resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest;
+
+async function loadOAuthModuleForTest() {
+  ({ resolveApiKeyForProfile, resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest } = await import("./oauth.js"));
+}
+
+const {
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock,
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock,
+} = vi.hoisted(() => ({
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock: vi.fn(
+    async (_params?: { context?: unknown }) => undefined,
+  ),
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock: vi.fn(() => undefined),
+}));
+
+vi.mock("../cli-credentials.js", () => ({
+  readCodexCliCredentialsCached: () => null,
+  readMiniMaxCliCredentialsCached: () => null,
+  resetCliCredentialCachesForTest: () => undefined,
+  writeCodexCliCredentials: () => true,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("../../plugins/provider-runtime.runtime.js", () => ({
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPlugin: (params: { context?: { access?: string } }) =>
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock() ?? params?.context?.access,
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin: refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("./doctor.js", () => ({
+  formatAuthDoctorHint: async () => undefined,
+}));
+
+// External-CLI sync does real I/O against the user's Codex/MiniMax CLI
+// credential files; it is slow and can pollute test state. Stub it to a no-op
+// so the suite only exercises in-repo auth-profile logic.
+vi.mock("./external-cli-sync.js", () => ({
+  syncExternalCliCredentials: () => false,
+  readManagedExternalCliCredential: () => null,
+  areOAuthCredentialsEquivalent: (a: unknown, b: unknown) => a === b,
+}));
+
+function createExpiredOauthStore(params: {
+  profileId: string;
+  provider: string;
+  access?: string;
+  refresh?: string;
+  accountId?: string;
+  email?: string;
+}): AuthProfileStore {
+  return {
+    version: 1,
+    profiles: {
+      [params.profileId]: {
+        type: "oauth",
+        provider: params.provider,
+        access: params.access ?? "cached-access-token",
+        refresh: params.refresh ?? "refresh-token",
+        expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+        accountId: params.accountId,
+        email: params.email,
+      } satisfies OAuthCredential,
+    },
+  };
+}
+
+describe("resolveApiKeyForProfile cross-agent refresh coordination (#26322)", () => {
+  const envSnapshot = captureEnv(["OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR"]);
+  let tempRoot = "";
+  let mainAgentDir = "";
+
+  beforeEach(async () => {
+    resetFileLockStateForTest();
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockReset();
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock.mockReset();
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock.mockReturnValue(undefined);
+    clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots();
+    tempRoot = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), "openclaw-oauth-concurrent-"));
+    process.env.OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR = tempRoot;
+    mainAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "main", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(mainAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    await loadOAuthModuleForTest();
+    // Drop any refresh-queue entries left behind by a prior timed-out test.
+    resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+  });
+
+  afterEach(async () => {
+    envSnapshot.restore();
+    resetFileLockStateForTest();
+    clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots();
+    if (resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest) {
+      resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+    }
+    if (tempRoot) {
+      await fs.rm(tempRoot, { recursive: true, force: true });
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("refreshes exactly once when 20 agents share one OAuth profile and all race on expiry", async () => {
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const accountId = "acct-shared";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    // Seed 20 sub-agents + main with the SAME stale OAuth credential. Main is
+    // also expired so it cannot short-circuit via adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential.
+    const subAgents = await Promise.all(
+      Array.from({ length: 20 }, async (_, i) => {
+        const dir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", `sub-${i}`, "agent");
+        await fs.mkdir(dir, { recursive: true });
+        saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId }), dir);
+        return dir;
+      }),
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId }), mainAgentDir);
+
+    // Count invocations, and add small jitter to widen the race window.
+    let callCount = 0;
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementation(async () => {
+      callCount += 1;
+      await new Promise((resolve) => setTimeout(resolve, 25));
+      return {
+        type: "oauth",
+        provider,
+        access: "cross-agent-refreshed-access",
+        refresh: "cross-agent-refreshed-refresh",
+        expires: freshExpiry,
+        accountId,
+      } as never;
+    });
+
+    // Fire all 20 agents concurrently. With the old per-agentDir lock this
+    // would produce ~20 concurrent refresh calls and 19 refresh_token_reused
+    // 401s. With the new global per-profile lock, only the first refresh is
+    // performed; the remaining 19 adopt the resulting fresh credentials.
+    const results = await Promise.all(
+      subAgents.map((agentDir) =>
+        resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+          store: ensureAuthProfileStore(agentDir),
+          profileId,
+          agentDir,
+        }),
+      ),
+    );
+
+    expect(callCount).toBe(1);
+    expect(results).toHaveLength(20);
+    for (const result of results) {
+      expect(result).not.toBeNull();
+      expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("cross-agent-refreshed-access");
+      expect(result?.provider).toBe(provider);
+    }
+  }, // Generous timeout; the fix should complete well under 5s in practice.
+  60_000);
+});
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.mirror-refresh.test.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.mirror-refresh.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..0f3d087f85b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.mirror-refresh.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,767 @@
+import fs from "node:fs/promises";
+import os from "node:os";
+import path from "node:path";
+import { afterEach, beforeEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import { resetFileLockStateForTest } from "../../infra/file-lock.js";
+import { captureEnv } from "../../test-utils/env.js";
+import {
+  clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots,
+  ensureAuthProfileStore,
+  saveAuthProfileStore,
+} from "./store.js";
+import type { AuthProfileStore, OAuthCredential } from "./types.js";
+
+let resolveApiKeyForProfile: typeof import("./oauth.js").resolveApiKeyForProfile;
+let resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest: typeof import("./oauth.js").resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest;
+
+async function loadOAuthModuleForTest() {
+  ({ resolveApiKeyForProfile, resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest } = await import("./oauth.js"));
+}
+
+const {
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock,
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock,
+} = vi.hoisted(() => ({
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock: vi.fn(
+    async (_params?: { context?: unknown }) => undefined,
+  ),
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock: vi.fn(() => undefined),
+}));
+
+vi.mock("../cli-credentials.js", () => ({
+  readCodexCliCredentialsCached: () => null,
+  readMiniMaxCliCredentialsCached: () => null,
+  resetCliCredentialCachesForTest: () => undefined,
+  writeCodexCliCredentials: () => true,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("../../plugins/provider-runtime.runtime.js", () => ({
+  formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPlugin: (params: { context?: { access?: string } }) =>
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock() ?? params?.context?.access,
+  refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin: refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("./doctor.js", () => ({
+  formatAuthDoctorHint: async () => undefined,
+}));
+
+vi.mock("./external-cli-sync.js", () => ({
+  syncExternalCliCredentials: () => false,
+  readManagedExternalCliCredential: () => null,
+  areOAuthCredentialsEquivalent: (a: unknown, b: unknown) => a === b,
+}));
+
+function createExpiredOauthStore(params: {
+  profileId: string;
+  provider: string;
+  access?: string;
+  refresh?: string;
+  accountId?: string;
+  email?: string;
+}): AuthProfileStore {
+  return {
+    version: 1,
+    profiles: {
+      [params.profileId]: {
+        type: "oauth",
+        provider: params.provider,
+        access: params.access ?? "cached-access-token",
+        refresh: params.refresh ?? "refresh-token",
+        expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+        accountId: params.accountId,
+        email: params.email,
+      } satisfies OAuthCredential,
+    },
+  };
+}
+
+describe("resolveApiKeyForProfile OAuth refresh mirror-to-main (#26322)", () => {
+  const envSnapshot = captureEnv(["OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR"]);
+  let tempRoot = "";
+  let mainAgentDir = "";
+
+  beforeEach(async () => {
+    resetFileLockStateForTest();
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockReset();
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockResolvedValue(undefined);
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock.mockReset();
+    formatProviderAuthProfileApiKeyWithPluginMock.mockReturnValue(undefined);
+    clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots();
+    tempRoot = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), "openclaw-oauth-mirror-"));
+    process.env.OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR = tempRoot;
+    mainAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "main", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(mainAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    await loadOAuthModuleForTest();
+    resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+  });
+
+  afterEach(async () => {
+    envSnapshot.restore();
+    resetFileLockStateForTest();
+    clearRuntimeAuthProfileStoreSnapshots();
+    if (resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest) {
+      resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest();
+    }
+    if (tempRoot) {
+      await fs.rm(tempRoot, { recursive: true, force: true });
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("mirrors refreshed credentials into the main store so peers skip refresh", async () => {
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const accountId = "acct-shared";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-mirror", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId }), subAgentDir);
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId }), mainAgentDir);
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          accountId,
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("sub-refreshed-access");
+
+    // Main store should now carry the refreshed credential, so a peer agent
+    // starting fresh will adopt rather than race.
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+      refresh: "sub-refreshed-refresh",
+      expires: freshExpiry,
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("does not mirror when refresh was performed from the main agent itself", async () => {
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, access: "main-stale-access" }),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "main-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "main-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    // Main-agent refresh uses undefined agentDir; the mirror path is a no-op
+    // (local == main). Just make sure the main store still reflects the refresh
+    // and no double-write happens.
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(undefined),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: undefined,
+    });
+
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("main-refreshed-access");
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "main-refreshed-access",
+      refresh: "main-refreshed-refresh",
+      expires: freshExpiry,
+    });
+    expect(refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
+  });
+
+  it("refuses to mirror when main has a non-oauth entry for the same profileId", async () => {
+    // Exercises the `existing.type !== "oauth"` early-return in the mirror
+    // updater. If the operator has manually switched the main profile to
+    // an api_key, a secondary-agent's OAuth refresh must not clobber it.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-non-oauth", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider }), subAgentDir);
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      {
+        version: 1,
+        profiles: {
+          [profileId]: {
+            type: "api_key",
+            provider,
+            key: "operator-key",
+          },
+        },
+      },
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("sub-refreshed-access");
+
+    // Main must still hold the operator's api_key, untouched.
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      type: "api_key",
+      key: "operator-key",
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("refuses to mirror when identity (accountId) mismatches", async () => {
+    // Exercises the CWE-284 identity gate: main carries acct-other, sub-agent
+    // refreshes as acct-mine — mirror must be refused.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-bad-identity", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      createExpiredOauthStore({
+        profileId,
+        provider,
+        access: "sub-stale",
+        accountId: "acct-mine",
+      }),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    // Main has a different account for the same profileId — this is the
+    // cross-account-leak scenario that the gate must block.
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      {
+        version: 1,
+        profiles: {
+          [profileId]: {
+            type: "oauth",
+            provider,
+            access: "main-other-access",
+            refresh: "main-other-refresh",
+            expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+            accountId: "acct-other",
+          },
+        },
+      },
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          accountId: "acct-mine",
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+    // Sub-agent gets its fresh token as usual.
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("sub-refreshed-access");
+
+    // But main store must still hold acct-other's credential unchanged.
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "main-other-access",
+      accountId: "acct-other",
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("refuses to mirror when main already has a strictly-fresher credential", async () => {
+    // Exercises the `existing.expires >= refreshed.expires` early-return.
+    // Scenario: main already completed a refresh (with a later expiry) while
+    // the sub-agent's refresh was in-flight; our mirror must not regress it.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const subFreshExpiry = Date.now() + 30 * 60 * 1000;
+    const mainFresherExpiry = Date.now() + 90 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-older", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId: "acct-shared" }),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      {
+        version: 1,
+        profiles: {
+          [profileId]: {
+            type: "oauth",
+            provider,
+            access: "main-already-fresh",
+            refresh: "main-already-fresh-refresh",
+            expires: mainFresherExpiry,
+            accountId: "acct-shared",
+          },
+        },
+      },
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-refreshed-older",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-older-refresh",
+          expires: subFreshExpiry,
+          accountId: "acct-shared",
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    // The sub-agent will actually adopt main's fresher creds via the inside-
+    // lock recheck (that's the whole point of #26322), so refresh may not
+    // even fire. We only care that the main store is not regressed.
+    await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "main-already-fresh",
+      expires: mainFresherExpiry,
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("refuses to mirror when main has a different provider for the same profileId", async () => {
+    // Exercises the `existing.provider !== params.refreshed.provider` branch
+    // in the mirror updater. Main holds a credential under the same profileId
+    // but for a different provider — mirror must refuse so we never silently
+    // rewrite a provider.
+    const profileId = "shared:default";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-provmismatch", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider: "openai-codex" }),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      {
+        version: 1,
+        profiles: {
+          [profileId]: {
+            type: "oauth",
+            provider: "anthropic", // deliberately different
+            access: "main-anthropic-access",
+            refresh: "main-anthropic-refresh",
+            expires: Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000,
+          },
+        },
+      },
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider: "openai-codex",
+          access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("sub-refreshed-access");
+
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    // Main must still hold its anthropic entry, not the openai-codex one.
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      provider: "anthropic",
+      access: "main-anthropic-access",
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("mirrors when main's existing cred has a non-finite expires (treated as overwritable)", async () => {
+    // Exercises the `Number.isFinite(existing.expires)` branch — when main
+    // has a stored cred with NaN/missing expiry, we treat it as overwritable
+    // rather than refusing to write a fresh one.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const accountId = "acct-shared";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-nanexp", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId }), subAgentDir);
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      {
+        version: 1,
+        profiles: {
+          [profileId]: {
+            type: "oauth",
+            provider,
+            access: "main-nan-access",
+            refresh: "main-nan-refresh",
+            expires: Number.NaN,
+            accountId,
+          },
+        },
+      },
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          accountId,
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+      expires: freshExpiry,
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("inherits main-agent credentials via the pre-refresh adopt path when main is already fresher", async () => {
+    // Exercises adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential at the top of
+    // resolveApiKeyForProfile: main is fresher at flow start, so we adopt
+    // BEFORE the refresh attempt. End-user outcome: sub transparently uses
+    // main's creds.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-fail-inherit", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId: "acct-shared" }),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      {
+        version: 1,
+        profiles: {
+          [profileId]: {
+            type: "oauth",
+            provider,
+            access: "main-fresh-access",
+            refresh: "main-fresh-refresh",
+            expires: freshExpiry,
+            accountId: "acct-shared",
+          },
+        },
+      },
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    // Refresh mock intentionally left as default-undefined — it should not
+    // be called, the pre-refresh adopt wins.
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("main-fresh-access");
+    expect(result?.provider).toBe(provider);
+    expect(refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+
+  it("inherits main-agent credentials via the catch-block fallback when refresh throws after main becomes fresh", async () => {
+    // Exercises the specific catch-block `if (params.agentDir) { mainStore … }`
+    // branch (lines 826-848 in oauth.ts). Setup:
+    //   1. sub + main BOTH expired at the start of resolveApiKeyForProfile,
+    //      so adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential does not short-circuit.
+    //   2. Inside refreshOAuthTokenWithLock, the plugin refresh mock writes
+    //      fresh credentials into the main store and then throws a non-
+    //      refresh_token_reused error. This simulates "another process
+    //      completed a refresh just as ours failed".
+    //   3. The catch block's loadFreshStoredOAuthCredential reads the sub
+    //      store (still expired). Then the main-agent-inherit fallback
+    //      kicks in, copies main's fresh creds into the sub store, and
+    //      returns them.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-catch-inherit", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId: "acct-shared" }),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId: "acct-shared" }),
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(async () => {
+      // Simulate another agent completing its refresh and writing fresh
+      // creds to main, concurrent with our attempt.
+      saveAuthProfileStore(
+        {
+          version: 1,
+          profiles: {
+            [profileId]: {
+              type: "oauth",
+              provider,
+              access: "main-side-refreshed-access",
+              refresh: "main-side-refreshed-refresh",
+              expires: freshExpiry,
+              accountId: "acct-shared",
+            },
+          },
+        },
+        mainAgentDir,
+      );
+      // Now throw a non-refresh_token_reused error so we fall through the
+      // recovery branches into the catch-block main-agent inherit.
+      throw new Error("upstream 503 service unavailable");
+    });
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("main-side-refreshed-access");
+    expect(result?.provider).toBe(provider);
+
+    // Sub-agent's store should now carry main's creds (inherited).
+    const subRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(subAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(subRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "main-side-refreshed-access",
+      expires: freshExpiry,
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("mirrors an identity-carrying refresh into a main store that has no identity (upgrade)", async () => {
+    // The Codex P1 scenario: main holds a pre-capture OAuth record (no
+    // accountId), the fresh sub-agent refresh response carries accountId.
+    // Mirror must accept so subsequent peers can adopt from main instead
+    // of hitting refresh_token_reused.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-upgrade-mirror", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    // Sub has accountId (modern capture); stale.
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId: "acct-sub" }),
+      subAgentDir,
+    );
+    // Main is pre-capture — no accountId at all.
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      {
+        version: 1,
+        profiles: {
+          [profileId]: {
+            type: "oauth",
+            provider,
+            access: "main-pre-capture-access",
+            refresh: "main-pre-capture-refresh",
+            expires: Date.now() - 60_000,
+          },
+        },
+      },
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          accountId: "acct-sub",
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("sub-refreshed-access");
+
+    // Main must have accepted the mirror, with the identity marker added.
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "sub-refreshed-access",
+      accountId: "acct-sub",
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("refuses to mirror when incoming drops an identity field present on main (regression guard)", async () => {
+    // Inverse of the upgrade test: main has accountId, incoming refresh
+    // response lacks it. Mirror must refuse so the identity marker is
+    // preserved — dropping it would later let a different-account sub pass
+    // the relaxed adoption gate.
+    const profileId = "openai-codex:default";
+    const provider = "openai-codex";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-regression", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider }), subAgentDir);
+    saveAuthProfileStore(
+      {
+        version: 1,
+        profiles: {
+          [profileId]: {
+            type: "oauth",
+            provider,
+            access: "main-identity-access",
+            refresh: "main-identity-refresh",
+            expires: Date.now() + 30 * 60 * 1000,
+            accountId: "acct-main",
+          },
+        },
+      },
+      mainAgentDir,
+    );
+
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          type: "oauth",
+          provider,
+          access: "sub-refreshed-no-identity",
+          refresh: "sub-refreshed-no-identity-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+          // intentionally no accountId / no email — the regression case
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+
+    // Main must still hold its accountId-bearing credential; mirror refused.
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "main-identity-access",
+      accountId: "acct-main",
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("mirrors refreshed credentials produced by the plugin-refresh path", async () => {
+    // The plugin-refreshed branch in doRefreshOAuthTokenWithLock has its own
+    // mirror call; cover it separately so the branch is not orphaned.
+    const profileId = "anthropic:plugin";
+    const provider = "anthropic";
+    const accountId = "acct-plugin";
+    const freshExpiry = Date.now() + 60 * 60 * 1000;
+
+    const subAgentDir = path.join(tempRoot, "agents", "sub-plugin", "agent");
+    await fs.mkdir(subAgentDir, { recursive: true });
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId }), subAgentDir);
+    saveAuthProfileStore(createExpiredOauthStore({ profileId, provider, accountId }), mainAgentDir);
+
+    // Plugin returns a truthy refreshed credential — this takes the plugin
+    // branch instead of falling through to getOAuthApiKey.
+    refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPluginMock.mockImplementationOnce(
+      async () =>
+        ({
+          access: "plugin-refreshed-access",
+          refresh: "plugin-refreshed-refresh",
+          expires: freshExpiry,
+        }) as never,
+    );
+
+    const result = await resolveApiKeyForProfile({
+      store: ensureAuthProfileStore(subAgentDir),
+      profileId,
+      agentDir: subAgentDir,
+    });
+    expect(result?.apiKey).toBe("plugin-refreshed-access");
+
+    // Main store must have been mirrored from the plugin-refresh branch.
+    const mainRaw = JSON.parse(
+      await fs.readFile(path.join(mainAgentDir, "auth-profiles.json"), "utf8"),
+    ) as AuthProfileStore;
+    expect(mainRaw.profiles[profileId]).toMatchObject({
+      access: "plugin-refreshed-access",
+      refresh: "plugin-refreshed-refresh",
+      expires: freshExpiry,
+    });
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.ts
index 6ee77f33c89..c8c73dc0f73 100644
--- a/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.ts
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/oauth.ts
@@ -17,20 +17,26 @@ import { resolveSecretRefString, type SecretRefResolveCache } from "../../secret
 import { normalizeLowercaseStringOrEmpty } from "../../shared/string-coerce.js";
 import { refreshChutesTokens } from "../chutes-oauth.js";
 import { writeCodexCliCredentials } from "../cli-credentials.js";
-import { AUTH_STORE_LOCK_OPTIONS, log } from "./constants.js";
+import {
+  AUTH_STORE_LOCK_OPTIONS,
+  OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS,
+  OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS,
+  log,
+} from "./constants.js";
 import { resolveTokenExpiryState } from "./credential-state.js";
 import { formatAuthDoctorHint } from "./doctor.js";
 import {
   areOAuthCredentialsEquivalent,
   readManagedExternalCliCredential,
 } from "./external-cli-sync.js";
-import { ensureAuthStoreFile, resolveAuthStorePath } from "./paths.js";
+import { ensureAuthStoreFile, resolveAuthStorePath, resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath } from "./paths.js";
 import { assertNoOAuthSecretRefPolicyViolations } from "./policy.js";
 import { suggestOAuthProfileIdForLegacyDefault } from "./repair.js";
 import {
   ensureAuthProfileStore,
   loadAuthProfileStoreForSecretsRuntime,
   saveAuthProfileStore,
+  updateAuthProfileStoreWithLock,
 } from "./store.js";
 import type { AuthProfileStore, OAuthCredential } from "./types.js";
 
@@ -125,7 +131,7 @@ function extractErrorMessage(error: unknown): string {
   return formatErrorMessage(error);
 }
 
-function isRefreshTokenReusedError(error: unknown): boolean {
+export function isRefreshTokenReusedError(error: unknown): boolean {
   const message = normalizeLowercaseStringOrEmpty(extractErrorMessage(error));
   return (
     message.includes("refresh_token_reused") ||
@@ -195,7 +201,12 @@ function adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential(params: {
       mainCred?.type === "oauth" &&
       mainCred.provider === params.cred.provider &&
       Number.isFinite(mainCred.expires) &&
-      (!Number.isFinite(params.cred.expires) || mainCred.expires > params.cred.expires)
+      (!Number.isFinite(params.cred.expires) || mainCred.expires > params.cred.expires) &&
+      // Defense-in-depth against cross-account leaks: refuse on positive
+      // mismatch, identity regression, or non-overlapping-field
+      // credentials. Tolerates the pure upgrade case where the sub has
+      // no identity metadata yet and main does.
+      isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(params.cred, mainCred)
     ) {
       params.store.profiles[params.profileId] = { ...mainCred };
       saveAuthProfileStore(params.store, params.agentDir);
@@ -216,128 +227,539 @@ function adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential(params: {
   return null;
 }
 
+// In-process serialization: callers for the same provider+profileId are
+// chained so only one enters doRefreshOAuthTokenWithLock at a time.
+// Necessary because withFileLock is re-entrant within the same PID
+// (HELD_LOCKS short-circuits), which would otherwise let two concurrent
+// same-PID callers both pass the file lock gate and race to refresh.
+//
+// The key is `${provider}\0${profileId}` (matching the cross-agent file
+// lock key) so two profiles that happen to share a profileId across
+// providers do not needlessly serialize against each other.
+const refreshQueues = new Map<string, Promise<unknown>>();
+
+function refreshQueueKey(provider: string, profileId: string): string {
+  return `${provider}\u0000${profileId}`;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Wrap an async call with a deadline after which the caller sees a
+ * timeout rejection and releases its locks. Used on the OAuth refresh
+ * critical section so the in-flight lock cannot outlive
+ * OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS.stale.
+ *
+ * LIMITATION: this does NOT cancel the underlying work. JavaScript
+ * promises are not cancellable and the pi-ai OAuth stack does not
+ * currently accept an AbortSignal. When the deadline fires the caller
+ * moves on and releases its file lock, but the original `fn()` promise
+ * keeps running in the background. That means a slow upstream refresh
+ * could still burn a refresh token well after we have given up on it,
+ * and a waiting peer that has now taken the lock may hit
+ * `refresh_token_reused`.
+ *
+ * The existing `isRefreshTokenReusedError` recovery path is the backstop
+ * for that residual case — it reloads from the main store and adopts if
+ * another agent's refresh has since landed. A fuller fix requires
+ * plumbing `AbortSignal` through the refresh stack into the HTTP
+ * client; tracked as a follow-up.
+ */
+async function withRefreshCallTimeout<T>(
+  label: string,
+  timeoutMs: number,
+  fn: () => Promise<T>,
+): Promise<T> {
+  let timeoutHandle: NodeJS.Timeout | undefined;
+  try {
+    return await new Promise<T>((resolve, reject) => {
+      timeoutHandle = setTimeout(() => {
+        reject(new Error(`OAuth refresh call "${label}" exceeded hard timeout (${timeoutMs}ms)`));
+      }, timeoutMs);
+      fn().then(resolve, reject);
+    });
+  } finally {
+    if (timeoutHandle) {
+      clearTimeout(timeoutHandle);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Drop any in-flight entries in the module-level refresh queue. Intended
+ * exclusively for tests that exercise the concurrent-refresh surface; a
+ * timed-out test can leave pending gates in the map and confuse subsequent
+ * tests that share the same Vitest worker.
+ */
+export function resetOAuthRefreshQueuesForTest(): void {
+  refreshQueues.clear();
+}
+
 async function refreshOAuthTokenWithLock(params: {
   profileId: string;
+  provider: string;
+  agentDir?: string;
+}): Promise<{ apiKey: string; newCredentials: OAuthCredentials } | null> {
+  const key = refreshQueueKey(params.provider, params.profileId);
+  const prev = refreshQueues.get(key) ?? Promise.resolve();
+  let release!: () => void;
+  const gate = new Promise<void>((r) => {
+    release = r;
+  });
+  refreshQueues.set(key, gate);
+  try {
+    await prev;
+    return await doRefreshOAuthTokenWithLock(params);
+  } finally {
+    release();
+    if (refreshQueues.get(key) === gate) {
+      refreshQueues.delete(key);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Mirror a refreshed OAuth credential back into the main-agent store so peer
+ * agents adopt it on their next `adoptNewerMainOAuthCredential` pass instead
+ * of racing to refresh the (now-single-used) refresh token.
+ *
+ * Identity binding (CWE-284): we require positive evidence the existing main
+ * credential and the refreshed credential belong to the same account before
+ * overwriting. If both sides expose `accountId` (strongest signal, Codex CLI)
+ * they must match; otherwise if both expose `email` they must match (case-
+ * insensitive, trimmed). Provider-only matches are not sufficient because
+ * nothing guarantees two agents with the same profileId are authenticated as
+ * the same user. This prevents a compromised sub-agent from poisoning the
+ * main store's credentials.
+ *
+ * Serialization: uses `updateAuthProfileStoreWithLock` so the read-modify-
+ * write takes the main-store lock and cannot race with other main-store
+ * writers (e.g. `updateAuthProfileStoreWithLock` in other flows, CLI-sync).
+ *
+ * Intentionally best-effort: a failure here must not fail the caller's
+ * refresh, since the credential has already been persisted to the agent's
+ * own store and returned to the requester.
+ */
+export function normalizeAuthIdentityToken(value: string | undefined): string | undefined {
+  const trimmed = value?.trim();
+  return trimmed ? trimmed : undefined;
+}
+
+export function normalizeAuthEmailToken(value: string | undefined): string | undefined {
+  return normalizeAuthIdentityToken(value)?.toLowerCase();
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns true if `existing` and `incoming` provably belong to the same
+ * account. Used to gate cross-agent credential mirroring.
+ *
+ * The rule is intentionally strict to satisfy the CWE-284 model:
+ *   1. If one side carries identity metadata (accountId or email) and the
+ *      other does not, refuse — we have no evidence they match.
+ *   2. If both sides carry identity, a shared field must match (accountId
+ *      wins over email when both present). If the two sides carry identity
+ *      in non-overlapping fields (one has only accountId, the other only
+ *      email), refuse.
+ *   3. If neither side carries identity, return true: no evidence of
+ *      mismatch and provider equality is checked separately by the caller.
+ *
+ * The previous permissive behaviour (fall back to `true` whenever a strict
+ * comparison could not be made) was unsafe: a sub-agent whose refreshed
+ * credential lacked identity metadata could overwrite a known-account main
+ * credential that had it, allowing cross-account poisoning through the
+ * mirror path.
+ */
+export function isSameOAuthIdentity(
+  existing: Pick<OAuthCredential, "accountId" | "email">,
+  incoming: Pick<OAuthCredential, "accountId" | "email">,
+): boolean {
+  const aAcct = normalizeAuthIdentityToken(existing.accountId);
+  const bAcct = normalizeAuthIdentityToken(incoming.accountId);
+  const aEmail = normalizeAuthEmailToken(existing.email);
+  const bEmail = normalizeAuthEmailToken(incoming.email);
+  const aHasIdentity = aAcct !== undefined || aEmail !== undefined;
+  const bHasIdentity = bAcct !== undefined || bEmail !== undefined;
+
+  // Asymmetric identity evidence — refuse. We cannot prove the two
+  // credentials belong to the same account.
+  if (aHasIdentity !== bHasIdentity) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  // Both sides carry identity — require a positive match on a shared field.
+  if (aHasIdentity) {
+    if (aAcct !== undefined && bAcct !== undefined) {
+      return aAcct === bAcct;
+    }
+    if (aEmail !== undefined && bEmail !== undefined) {
+      return aEmail === bEmail;
+    }
+    // Identity metadata is present on both sides but in non-overlapping
+    // fields (one has accountId, the other has only email, or vice versa).
+    // No shared field to compare — refuse rather than guess.
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  // Neither side carries identity metadata — provider equality is checked
+  // separately by the caller; no evidence of mismatch here.
+  return true;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Identity gate used for both directions of credential copy:
+ *   - mirror (sub-agent refresh -> main agent store)
+ *   - adopt (main agent store -> sub-agent store)
+ *
+ * Rule: allow the copy iff
+ *   1. no positive identity mismatch — if both sides expose the same
+ *      identity field (accountId or email), the values must match, AND
+ *   2. the incoming credential carries at least as much identity
+ *      evidence as the existing one — if existing has accountId/email,
+ *      incoming must carry the same field, AND
+ *   3. when both sides carry identity but in non-overlapping fields
+ *      (existing has only accountId, incoming has only email, or vice
+ *      versa) we cannot positively prove the same account and the copy
+ *      is refused.
+ *
+ * Accepts:
+ *   - matching accountId (positive match on strongest field)
+ *   - matching email when accountId is absent on both sides
+ *   - neither side carries identity (no evidence of mismatch)
+ *   - existing has no identity, incoming has identity (UPGRADE: adds
+ *     the marker without dropping anything)
+ *
+ * Refuses:
+ *   - mismatching accountId or email on a shared field (CWE-284 core)
+ *   - incoming drops an identity field present on existing (regression
+ *     that would later let a wrong-account peer pass this gate)
+ *   - non-overlapping fields (no comparable positive match)
+ *
+ * Design note: this is a single unified rule for both copy directions.
+ * The rule is deliberately one-sided because "existing" is whatever is
+ * about to be overwritten and "incoming" is the new data — the
+ * constraint is the same regardless of whether existing is main or sub.
+ */
+export function isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(
+  existing: Pick<OAuthCredential, "accountId" | "email">,
+  incoming: Pick<OAuthCredential, "accountId" | "email">,
+): boolean {
+  const aAcct = normalizeAuthIdentityToken(existing.accountId);
+  const bAcct = normalizeAuthIdentityToken(incoming.accountId);
+  const aEmail = normalizeAuthEmailToken(existing.email);
+  const bEmail = normalizeAuthEmailToken(incoming.email);
+
+  // (1) Positive match on a shared field, if one exists.
+  if (aAcct !== undefined && bAcct !== undefined) {
+    return aAcct === bAcct;
+  }
+  if (aEmail !== undefined && bEmail !== undefined) {
+    return aEmail === bEmail;
+  }
+
+  // No shared comparable field beyond this point.
+  const aHasIdentity = aAcct !== undefined || aEmail !== undefined;
+
+  // (2) Refuse if existing has any identity evidence that incoming lacks.
+  //     That covers both the "drop" case (incoming has nothing) and the
+  //     "non-overlapping fields" case (existing has accountId only,
+  //     incoming has email only, or vice versa).
+  if (aHasIdentity) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  // (3) Existing has no identity. Either incoming has none either
+  //     (allowed: no evidence of mismatch) or incoming adds identity
+  //     (allowed: pure upgrade, no loss).
+  return true;
+}
+
+async function mirrorRefreshedCredentialIntoMainStore(params: {
+  profileId: string;
+  refreshed: OAuthCredential;
+}): Promise<void> {
+  try {
+    const mainPath = resolveAuthStorePath(undefined);
+    ensureAuthStoreFile(mainPath);
+    await updateAuthProfileStoreWithLock({
+      agentDir: undefined,
+      updater: (store) => {
+        const existing = store.profiles[params.profileId];
+        if (existing && existing.type !== "oauth") {
+          return false;
+        }
+        if (existing && existing.provider !== params.refreshed.provider) {
+          return false;
+        }
+        // Identity binding for the mirror direction, using the unified
+        // copy-safety gate. Accepts upgrades (main has no accountId yet,
+        // incoming does) while refusing positive mismatches, identity
+        // regressions, and non-overlapping-field credentials.
+        if (existing && !isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(existing, params.refreshed)) {
+          log.warn("refused to mirror OAuth credential: identity mismatch or regression", {
+            profileId: params.profileId,
+          });
+          return false;
+        }
+        // Only overwrite when the incoming credential is strictly fresher
+        // (or main has no usable expiry). Prevents clobbering a concurrent
+        // successful refresh performed by the main agent itself.
+        if (
+          existing &&
+          Number.isFinite(existing.expires) &&
+          Number.isFinite(params.refreshed.expires) &&
+          existing.expires >= params.refreshed.expires
+        ) {
+          return false;
+        }
+        store.profiles[params.profileId] = { ...params.refreshed };
+        log.debug("mirrored refreshed OAuth credential to main agent store", {
+          profileId: params.profileId,
+          expires: Number.isFinite(params.refreshed.expires)
+            ? new Date(params.refreshed.expires).toISOString()
+            : undefined,
+        });
+        return true;
+      },
+    });
+  } catch (err) {
+    log.debug("mirrorRefreshedCredentialIntoMainStore failed", {
+      profileId: params.profileId,
+      error: formatErrorMessage(err),
+    });
+  }
+}
+
+async function doRefreshOAuthTokenWithLock(params: {
+  profileId: string;
+  provider: string;
   agentDir?: string;
 }): Promise<{ apiKey: string; newCredentials: OAuthCredentials } | null> {
   const authPath = resolveAuthStorePath(params.agentDir);
   ensureAuthStoreFile(authPath);
+  // Two-layer coordination:
+  //   1. Global refresh lock keyed on sha256(profileId): every agent trying
+  //      to refresh the same profile acquires the same file lock, so only
+  //      one HTTP refresh is in-flight at a time (#26322).
+  //   2. Per-store lock (AUTH_STORE_LOCK_OPTIONS) on this agent's
+  //      auth-profiles.json: serializes the refresh's read-modify-writes
+  //      with other writers of the same store (e.g. usage/profile updates
+  //      via updateAuthProfileStoreWithLock, CLI sync).
+  // Lock acquisition order is always refresh -> per-store; non-refresh code
+  // paths only take the per-store lock, so no cycle is possible.
+  const globalRefreshLockPath = resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath(params.provider, params.profileId);
 
-  return await withFileLock(authPath, AUTH_STORE_LOCK_OPTIONS, async () => {
-    // Locked refresh must bypass runtime snapshots so we can adopt fresher
-    // on-disk credentials written by another refresh attempt.
-    const store = loadAuthProfileStoreForSecretsRuntime(params.agentDir);
-    const cred = store.profiles[params.profileId];
-    if (!cred || cred.type !== "oauth") {
-      return null;
-    }
-
-    if (Date.now() < cred.expires) {
-      return {
-        apiKey: await buildOAuthApiKey(cred.provider, cred),
-        newCredentials: cred,
-      };
-    }
-
-    const externallyManaged = readManagedExternalCliCredential({
-      profileId: params.profileId,
-      credential: cred,
-    });
-    if (externallyManaged) {
-      if (!areOAuthCredentialsEquivalent(cred, externallyManaged)) {
-        store.profiles[params.profileId] = externallyManaged;
-        saveAuthProfileStore(store, params.agentDir);
+  return await withFileLock(globalRefreshLockPath, OAUTH_REFRESH_LOCK_OPTIONS, async () =>
+    withFileLock(authPath, AUTH_STORE_LOCK_OPTIONS, async () => {
+      // Locked refresh must bypass runtime snapshots so we can adopt fresher
+      // on-disk credentials written by another refresh attempt.
+      const store = loadAuthProfileStoreForSecretsRuntime(params.agentDir);
+      const cred = store.profiles[params.profileId];
+      if (!cred || cred.type !== "oauth") {
+        return null;
       }
-      if (Date.now() < externallyManaged.expires) {
+
+      if (Date.now() < cred.expires) {
         return {
-          apiKey: await buildOAuthApiKey(externallyManaged.provider, externallyManaged),
-          newCredentials: externallyManaged,
+          apiKey: await buildOAuthApiKey(cred.provider, cred),
+          newCredentials: cred,
         };
       }
-      if (externallyManaged.managedBy === "codex-cli") {
-        const pluginRefreshed = await refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin({
-          provider: externallyManaged.provider,
-          context: externallyManaged,
-        });
-        if (pluginRefreshed) {
-          const refreshedCredentials: OAuthCredential = {
-            ...externallyManaged,
-            ...pluginRefreshed,
-            type: "oauth",
-            managedBy: "codex-cli",
-          };
-          if (!writeCodexCliCredentials(refreshedCredentials)) {
-            log.warn("failed to persist refreshed codex credentials back to Codex storage", {
+
+      // Inside-the-lock recheck: a prior agent that already held this lock may
+      // have completed a refresh and mirrored its fresh credential into the
+      // main store. If so, adopt into the local store and return without
+      // issuing another HTTP refresh. This is what turns N serialized
+      // refreshes into 1 refresh + (N-1) adoptions, preventing the
+      // `refresh_token_reused` storm reported in #26322.
+      if (params.agentDir) {
+        try {
+          const mainStore = loadAuthProfileStoreForSecretsRuntime(undefined);
+          const mainCred = mainStore.profiles[params.profileId];
+          if (
+            mainCred?.type === "oauth" &&
+            mainCred.provider === cred.provider &&
+            Number.isFinite(mainCred.expires) &&
+            Date.now() < mainCred.expires &&
+            // Defense-in-depth identity gate. Tolerates the pure upgrade
+            // case (sub predates identity capture) but refuses positive
+            // mismatch, identity regression, and non-overlapping fields.
+            isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(cred, mainCred)
+          ) {
+            store.profiles[params.profileId] = { ...mainCred };
+            saveAuthProfileStore(store, params.agentDir);
+            log.info("adopted fresh OAuth credential from main store (under refresh lock)", {
               profileId: params.profileId,
+              agentDir: params.agentDir,
+              expires: new Date(mainCred.expires).toISOString(),
+            });
+            return {
+              apiKey: await buildOAuthApiKey(mainCred.provider, mainCred),
+              newCredentials: mainCred,
+            };
+          } else if (
+            mainCred?.type === "oauth" &&
+            mainCred.provider === cred.provider &&
+            Number.isFinite(mainCred.expires) &&
+            Date.now() < mainCred.expires &&
+            !isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(cred, mainCred)
+          ) {
+            // Main has fresh creds but they belong to a DIFFERENT account —
+            // record the refusal so operators can diagnose, then proceed to
+            // our own refresh rather than leaking credentials.
+            log.warn("refused to adopt fresh main-store OAuth credential: identity mismatch", {
+              profileId: params.profileId,
+              agentDir: params.agentDir,
             });
           }
-          store.profiles[params.profileId] = refreshedCredentials;
-          saveAuthProfileStore(store, params.agentDir);
-          return {
-            apiKey: await buildOAuthApiKey(refreshedCredentials.provider, refreshedCredentials),
-            newCredentials: refreshedCredentials,
-          };
+        } catch (err) {
+          log.debug("inside-lock main-store adoption failed; proceeding to refresh", {
+            profileId: params.profileId,
+            error: formatErrorMessage(err),
+          });
         }
       }
-      throw new Error(
-        `${externallyManaged.managedBy} credential is expired; refresh it in the external CLI and retry.`,
-      );
-    }
-    if (cred.managedBy) {
-      throw new Error(
-        `${cred.managedBy} credential is unavailable; re-authenticate in the external CLI and retry.`,
-      );
-    }
 
-    const pluginRefreshed = await refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin({
-      provider: cred.provider,
-      context: cred,
-    });
-    if (pluginRefreshed) {
-      const refreshedCredentials: OAuthCredential = {
+      const externallyManaged = readManagedExternalCliCredential({
+        profileId: params.profileId,
+        credential: cred,
+      });
+      if (externallyManaged) {
+        if (!areOAuthCredentialsEquivalent(cred, externallyManaged)) {
+          store.profiles[params.profileId] = externallyManaged;
+          saveAuthProfileStore(store, params.agentDir);
+        }
+        if (Date.now() < externallyManaged.expires) {
+          return {
+            apiKey: await buildOAuthApiKey(externallyManaged.provider, externallyManaged),
+            newCredentials: externallyManaged,
+          };
+        }
+        if (externallyManaged.managedBy === "codex-cli") {
+          const pluginRefreshed = await withRefreshCallTimeout(
+            `refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin(${externallyManaged.provider}, codex-cli)`,
+            OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS,
+            () =>
+              refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin({
+                provider: externallyManaged.provider,
+                context: externallyManaged,
+              }),
+          );
+          if (pluginRefreshed) {
+            const refreshedCredentials: OAuthCredential = {
+              ...externallyManaged,
+              ...pluginRefreshed,
+              type: "oauth",
+              managedBy: "codex-cli",
+            };
+            if (!writeCodexCliCredentials(refreshedCredentials)) {
+              log.warn("failed to persist refreshed codex credentials back to Codex storage", {
+                profileId: params.profileId,
+              });
+            }
+            store.profiles[params.profileId] = refreshedCredentials;
+            saveAuthProfileStore(store, params.agentDir);
+            return {
+              apiKey: await buildOAuthApiKey(refreshedCredentials.provider, refreshedCredentials),
+              newCredentials: refreshedCredentials,
+            };
+          }
+        }
+        throw new Error(
+          `${externallyManaged.managedBy} credential is expired; refresh it in the external CLI and retry.`,
+        );
+      }
+      if (cred.managedBy) {
+        throw new Error(
+          `${cred.managedBy} credential is unavailable; re-authenticate in the external CLI and retry.`,
+        );
+      }
+
+      const pluginRefreshed = await withRefreshCallTimeout(
+        `refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin(${cred.provider})`,
+        OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS,
+        () =>
+          refreshProviderOAuthCredentialWithPlugin({
+            provider: cred.provider,
+            context: cred,
+          }),
+      );
+      if (pluginRefreshed) {
+        const refreshedCredentials: OAuthCredential = {
+          ...cred,
+          ...pluginRefreshed,
+          type: "oauth",
+        };
+        store.profiles[params.profileId] = refreshedCredentials;
+        saveAuthProfileStore(store, params.agentDir);
+        if (params.agentDir) {
+          const mainPath = resolveAuthStorePath(undefined);
+          if (mainPath !== authPath) {
+            await mirrorRefreshedCredentialIntoMainStore({
+              profileId: params.profileId,
+              refreshed: refreshedCredentials,
+            });
+          }
+        }
+        return {
+          apiKey: await buildOAuthApiKey(cred.provider, refreshedCredentials),
+          newCredentials: refreshedCredentials,
+        };
+      }
+
+      const oauthCreds: Record<string, OAuthCredentials> = { [cred.provider]: cred };
+      const result =
+        cred.provider === "chutes"
+          ? await (async () => {
+              const newCredentials = await withRefreshCallTimeout(
+                `refreshChutesTokens(${cred.provider})`,
+                OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS,
+                () => refreshChutesTokens({ credential: cred }),
+              );
+              return { apiKey: newCredentials.access, newCredentials };
+            })()
+          : await (async () => {
+              const oauthProvider = resolveOAuthProvider(cred.provider);
+              if (!oauthProvider) {
+                return null;
+              }
+              if (typeof getOAuthApiKey !== "function") {
+                return null;
+              }
+              return await withRefreshCallTimeout(
+                `getOAuthApiKey(${oauthProvider})`,
+                OAUTH_REFRESH_CALL_TIMEOUT_MS,
+                () => getOAuthApiKey(oauthProvider, oauthCreds),
+              );
+            })();
+      if (!result) {
+        return null;
+      }
+      const mergedCred: OAuthCredential = {
         ...cred,
-        ...pluginRefreshed,
+        ...result.newCredentials,
         type: "oauth",
       };
-      store.profiles[params.profileId] = refreshedCredentials;
+      store.profiles[params.profileId] = mergedCred;
       saveAuthProfileStore(store, params.agentDir);
-      return {
-        apiKey: await buildOAuthApiKey(cred.provider, refreshedCredentials),
-        newCredentials: refreshedCredentials,
-      };
-    }
 
-    const oauthCreds: Record<string, OAuthCredentials> = { [cred.provider]: cred };
-    const result =
-      cred.provider === "chutes"
-        ? await (async () => {
-            const newCredentials = await refreshChutesTokens({
-              credential: cred,
-            });
-            return { apiKey: newCredentials.access, newCredentials };
-          })()
-        : await (async () => {
-            const oauthProvider = resolveOAuthProvider(cred.provider);
-            if (!oauthProvider) {
-              return null;
-            }
-            if (typeof getOAuthApiKey !== "function") {
-              return null;
-            }
-            return await getOAuthApiKey(oauthProvider, oauthCreds);
-          })();
-    if (!result) {
-      return null;
-    }
-    store.profiles[params.profileId] = {
-      ...cred,
-      ...result.newCredentials,
-      type: "oauth",
-    };
-    saveAuthProfileStore(store, params.agentDir);
+      // Mirror the refreshed credential back into the main-agent store while
+      // both locks are still held (refresh lock + this agent's store lock)
+      // plus we'll take main-store lock inside the mirror. Doing this inside
+      // the refresh lock closes the cross-process race window where a second
+      // agent could acquire the refresh lock between our lock release and
+      // our main-store write, see only stale main creds, and redundantly
+      // refresh (reproducing refresh_token_reused).
+      if (params.agentDir) {
+        const mainPath = resolveAuthStorePath(undefined);
+        if (mainPath !== authPath) {
+          await mirrorRefreshedCredentialIntoMainStore({
+            profileId: params.profileId,
+            refreshed: mergedCred,
+          });
+        }
+      }
 
-    return result;
-  });
+      return result;
+    }),
+  );
 }
 
 async function tryResolveOAuthProfile(
@@ -369,6 +791,7 @@ async function tryResolveOAuthProfile(
 
   const refreshed = await refreshOAuthTokenWithLock({
     profileId,
+    provider: cred.provider,
     agentDir: params.agentDir,
   });
   if (!refreshed) {
@@ -521,6 +944,7 @@ export async function resolveApiKeyForProfile(
   try {
     const result = await refreshOAuthTokenWithLock({
       profileId,
+      provider: cred.provider,
       agentDir: params.agentDir,
     });
     if (!result) {
@@ -563,6 +987,7 @@ export async function resolveApiKeyForProfile(
       }
       const retried = await refreshOAuthTokenWithLock({
         profileId,
+        provider: cred.provider,
         agentDir: params.agentDir,
       });
       if (retried) {
@@ -600,7 +1025,15 @@ export async function resolveApiKeyForProfile(
       try {
         const mainStore = ensureAuthProfileStore(undefined); // main agent (no agentDir)
         const mainCred = mainStore.profiles[profileId];
-        if (mainCred?.type === "oauth" && Date.now() < mainCred.expires) {
+        if (
+          mainCred?.type === "oauth" &&
+          mainCred.provider === cred.provider &&
+          Date.now() < mainCred.expires &&
+          // Defense-in-depth identity gate — refuse to inherit credentials
+          // from a different account even under refresh failure. Tolerates
+          // pre-capture credentials but refuses regression/non-overlap.
+          isSafeToCopyOAuthIdentity(cred, mainCred)
+        ) {
           // Main agent has fresh credentials - copy them to this agent and use them
           refreshedStore.profiles[profileId] = { ...mainCred };
           saveAuthProfileStore(refreshedStore, params.agentDir);
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/path-resolve.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/path-resolve.ts
index 057ecc6a834..1b4ebd00b51 100644
--- a/src/agents/auth-profiles/path-resolve.ts
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/path-resolve.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
+import { createHash } from "node:crypto";
 import path from "node:path";
+import { resolveStateDir } from "../../config/paths.js";
 import { resolveUserPath } from "../../utils.js";
 import { resolveOpenClawAgentDir } from "../agent-paths.js";
 import {
@@ -31,3 +33,29 @@ export function resolveAuthStatePathForDisplay(agentDir?: string): string {
   const pathname = resolveAuthStatePath(agentDir);
   return pathname.startsWith("~") ? pathname : resolveUserPath(pathname);
 }
+
+/**
+ * Resolve the path of the cross-agent, per-profile OAuth refresh coordination
+ * lock. The filename hashes `provider\0profileId` so it is filesystem-safe
+ * for arbitrary unicode/control-character inputs and always bounded in
+ * length. The NUL separator makes it impossible to collide two distinct
+ * `(provider, profileId)` pairs by string concatenation.
+ *
+ * This lock is the serialization point that prevents the `refresh_token_reused`
+ * storm when N agents share one OAuth profile (see issue #26322): every agent
+ * that attempts a refresh acquires this same file lock, so only one HTTP
+ * refresh is in-flight at a time and peers can adopt the resulting fresh
+ * credentials instead of racing against a single-use refresh token.
+ *
+ * The key intentionally includes `provider` so that two profiles that
+ * happen to share a `profileId` across providers (operator-renamed profile,
+ * test fixture, etc.) do not needlessly serialize against each other.
+ */
+export function resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath(provider: string, profileId: string): string {
+  const hash = createHash("sha256");
+  hash.update(provider, "utf8");
+  hash.update("\u0000", "utf8"); // NUL separator: unambiguous boundary.
+  hash.update(profileId, "utf8");
+  const safeId = `sha256-${hash.digest("hex")}`;
+  return path.join(resolveStateDir(), "locks", "oauth-refresh", safeId);
+}
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/paths-direct-import.test.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/paths-direct-import.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..6fc0cfde449
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/paths-direct-import.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+import fs from "node:fs/promises";
+import os from "node:os";
+import path from "node:path";
+import { afterEach, beforeEach, describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
+import { captureEnv } from "../../test-utils/env.js";
+import {
+  resolveAuthStatePath,
+  resolveAuthStatePathForDisplay,
+  resolveAuthStorePath,
+  resolveAuthStorePathForDisplay,
+  resolveLegacyAuthStorePath,
+} from "./path-resolve.js";
+import { ensureAuthStoreFile } from "./paths.js";
+
+// Direct-import sanity tests. These helpers are exercised transitively by the
+// wider auth-profile test suite via ESM re-exports through paths.ts, but v8
+// coverage does not always attribute those transitive hits back to the
+// original function bodies in path-resolve.ts. This file imports each helper
+// directly from ./path-resolve.js (bypassing the re-export indirection) and
+// calls it at least once so the coverage report is honest about what is and
+// isn't tested.
+
+describe("path-resolve helpers (direct-import coverage attribution)", () => {
+  const envSnapshot = captureEnv(["OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR"]);
+  let stateDir = "";
+
+  beforeEach(async () => {
+    stateDir = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), "openclaw-path-direct-"));
+    process.env.OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR = stateDir;
+  });
+
+  afterEach(async () => {
+    envSnapshot.restore();
+    await fs.rm(stateDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
+  });
+
+  it("resolveAuthStorePath joins agentDir with the auth-profiles filename", () => {
+    const agentDir = path.join(stateDir, "agents", "main", "agent");
+    const resolved = resolveAuthStorePath(agentDir);
+    expect(path.dirname(resolved)).toBe(agentDir);
+    expect(path.basename(resolved)).toMatch(/auth-profiles/);
+  });
+
+  it("resolveAuthStorePath falls back to resolveOpenClawAgentDir when agentDir is omitted", () => {
+    // Omitting agentDir exercises the `agentDir ?? resolveOpenClawAgentDir()`
+    // nullish branch. With OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR set to our tempdir, the
+    // resolved path must live under it.
+    const resolved = resolveAuthStorePath();
+    expect(resolved.startsWith(stateDir)).toBe(true);
+    expect(path.basename(resolved)).toMatch(/auth-profiles/);
+  });
+
+  it("resolveLegacyAuthStorePath joins agentDir with the legacy auth filename", () => {
+    const agentDir = path.join(stateDir, "agents", "main", "agent");
+    const resolved = resolveLegacyAuthStorePath(agentDir);
+    expect(path.dirname(resolved)).toBe(agentDir);
+    expect(path.basename(resolved)).not.toMatch(/auth-profiles/);
+  });
+
+  it("resolveLegacyAuthStorePath falls back to the default agent dir", () => {
+    const resolved = resolveLegacyAuthStorePath();
+    expect(resolved.startsWith(stateDir)).toBe(true);
+  });
+
+  it("resolveAuthStatePath joins agentDir with the auth-state filename", () => {
+    const agentDir = path.join(stateDir, "agents", "main", "agent");
+    const resolved = resolveAuthStatePath(agentDir);
+    expect(path.dirname(resolved)).toBe(agentDir);
+  });
+
+  it("resolveAuthStatePath falls back to the default agent dir", () => {
+    const resolved = resolveAuthStatePath();
+    expect(resolved.startsWith(stateDir)).toBe(true);
+  });
+
+  it("resolveAuthStorePathForDisplay returns the resolved path for a non-tilde input", () => {
+    const agentDir = path.join(stateDir, "agents", "main", "agent");
+    const resolved = resolveAuthStorePathForDisplay(agentDir);
+    expect(resolved.startsWith(stateDir)).toBe(true);
+  });
+
+  it("resolveAuthStorePathForDisplay preserves a tilde-rooted path unchanged", () => {
+    // Exercises the `pathname.startsWith(\"~\")` branch. We use a contrived
+    // agentDir that already starts with `~` so the resolver echoes the
+    // tilde path back instead of expanding it via resolveUserPath.
+    const tildeAgentDir = "~fake-openclaw-no-expand";
+    const resolved = resolveAuthStorePathForDisplay(tildeAgentDir);
+    // Either the path itself starts with `~`, or the display variant
+    // happened to resolve through the user-path branch. Both branches are
+    // valid; the point is just that the function returned a string and
+    // the branch was executed.
+    expect(typeof resolved).toBe("string");
+    expect(resolved.length).toBeGreaterThan(0);
+  });
+
+  it("resolveAuthStatePathForDisplay returns a string", () => {
+    const agentDir = path.join(stateDir, "agents", "main", "agent");
+    const resolved = resolveAuthStatePathForDisplay(agentDir);
+    expect(typeof resolved).toBe("string");
+    expect(resolved.length).toBeGreaterThan(0);
+  });
+});
+
+describe("ensureAuthStoreFile (direct-import coverage attribution)", () => {
+  const envSnapshot = captureEnv(["OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR"]);
+  let stateDir = "";
+
+  beforeEach(async () => {
+    stateDir = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), "openclaw-path-ensure-"));
+    process.env.OPENCLAW_STATE_DIR = stateDir;
+  });
+
+  afterEach(async () => {
+    envSnapshot.restore();
+    await fs.rm(stateDir, { recursive: true, force: true });
+  });
+
+  it("creates a new auth-profiles.json when the file does not yet exist", async () => {
+    const target = path.join(stateDir, "sub", "auth-profiles.json");
+    ensureAuthStoreFile(target);
+    const raw = await fs.readFile(target, "utf8");
+    const parsed = JSON.parse(raw) as { version: number; profiles: Record<string, unknown> };
+    expect(parsed.version).toBeGreaterThanOrEqual(1);
+    expect(parsed.profiles).toEqual({});
+  });
+
+  it("leaves an existing auth-profiles.json unchanged", async () => {
+    const target = path.join(stateDir, "auth-profiles.json");
+    // Seed a file with custom content; ensureAuthStoreFile should bail out
+    // on the existsSync short-circuit and NOT overwrite.
+    await fs.writeFile(
+      target,
+      JSON.stringify({
+        version: 1,
+        profiles: { canary: { type: "api_key", provider: "x", key: "k" } },
+      }),
+      "utf8",
+    );
+    ensureAuthStoreFile(target);
+    const raw = await fs.readFile(target, "utf8");
+    const parsed = JSON.parse(raw) as { profiles: Record<string, unknown> };
+    expect(parsed.profiles.canary).toBeDefined();
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/agents/auth-profiles/paths.ts b/src/agents/auth-profiles/paths.ts
index 58cad55dc53..38bcfb86275 100644
--- a/src/agents/auth-profiles/paths.ts
+++ b/src/agents/auth-profiles/paths.ts
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@ export {
   resolveAuthStorePath,
   resolveAuthStorePathForDisplay,
   resolveLegacyAuthStorePath,
+  resolveOAuthRefreshLockPath,
 } from "./path-resolve.js";
 
 export function ensureAuthStoreFile(pathname: string) {