diff --git a/src/acp/server.startup.test.ts b/src/acp/server.startup.test.ts
index cb50eb66374..3eec8052f15 100644
--- a/src/acp/server.startup.test.ts
+++ b/src/acp/server.startup.test.ts
@@ -10,16 +10,24 @@ type GatewayClientAuth = {
   token?: string;
   password?: string;
 };
-type ResolveGatewayConnectionAuth = (params: unknown) => Promise<GatewayClientAuth>;
+type ResolveGatewayClientBootstrap = (params: unknown) => Promise<{
+  url: string;
+  urlSource: string;
+  auth: GatewayClientAuth;
+}>;
 
 const mockState = vi.hoisted(() => ({
   gateways: [] as MockGatewayClient[],
   gatewayAuth: [] as GatewayClientAuth[],
   agentSideConnectionCtor: vi.fn(),
   agentStart: vi.fn(),
-  resolveGatewayConnectionAuth: vi.fn<ResolveGatewayConnectionAuth>(async (_params) => ({
-    token: undefined,
-    password: undefined,
+  resolveGatewayClientBootstrap: vi.fn<ResolveGatewayClientBootstrap>(async (_params) => ({
+    url: "ws://127.0.0.1:18789",
+    urlSource: "local loopback",
+    auth: {
+      token: undefined,
+      password: undefined,
+    },
   })),
 }));
 
@@ -82,8 +90,9 @@ vi.mock("../gateway/call.js", () => ({
   },
 }));
 
-vi.mock("../gateway/connection-auth.js", () => ({
-  resolveGatewayConnectionAuth: (params: unknown) => mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth(params),
+vi.mock("../gateway/client-bootstrap.js", () => ({
+  resolveGatewayClientBootstrap: (params: unknown) =>
+    mockState.resolveGatewayClientBootstrap(params),
 }));
 
 vi.mock("../gateway/client.js", () => ({
@@ -156,10 +165,14 @@ describe("serveAcpGateway startup", () => {
     mockState.gatewayAuth.length = 0;
     mockState.agentSideConnectionCtor.mockReset();
     mockState.agentStart.mockReset();
-    mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth.mockReset();
-    mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth.mockResolvedValue({
-      token: undefined,
-      password: undefined,
+    mockState.resolveGatewayClientBootstrap.mockReset();
+    mockState.resolveGatewayClientBootstrap.mockResolvedValue({
+      url: "ws://127.0.0.1:18789",
+      urlSource: "local loopback",
+      auth: {
+        token: undefined,
+        password: undefined,
+      },
     });
   });
 
@@ -199,9 +212,13 @@ describe("serveAcpGateway startup", () => {
   });
 
   it("passes resolved SecretInput gateway credentials to the ACP gateway client", async () => {
-    mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth.mockResolvedValue({
-      token: undefined,
-      password: "resolved-secret-password", // pragma: allowlist secret
+    mockState.resolveGatewayClientBootstrap.mockResolvedValue({
+      url: "ws://127.0.0.1:18789",
+      urlSource: "local loopback",
+      auth: {
+        token: undefined,
+        password: "resolved-secret-password", // pragma: allowlist secret
+      },
     });
     const { signalHandlers, onceSpy } = captureProcessSignalHandlers();
 
@@ -209,7 +226,7 @@ describe("serveAcpGateway startup", () => {
       const servePromise = serveAcpGateway({});
       await Promise.resolve();
 
-      expect(mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+      expect(mockState.resolveGatewayClientBootstrap).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
         expect.objectContaining({
           env: process.env,
         }),
@@ -235,11 +252,10 @@ describe("serveAcpGateway startup", () => {
       });
       await Promise.resolve();
 
-      expect(mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+      expect(mockState.resolveGatewayClientBootstrap).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
         expect.objectContaining({
           env: process.env,
-          urlOverride: "wss://override.example/ws",
-          urlOverrideSource: "cli",
+          gatewayUrl: "wss://override.example/ws",
         }),
       );
 
diff --git a/src/acp/server.ts b/src/acp/server.ts
index c19f48b3631..27d8bfa6427 100644
--- a/src/acp/server.ts
+++ b/src/acp/server.ts
@@ -3,9 +3,8 @@ import { Readable, Writable } from "node:stream";
 import { fileURLToPath } from "node:url";
 import { AgentSideConnection, ndJsonStream } from "@agentclientprotocol/sdk";
 import { loadConfig } from "../config/config.js";
-import { buildGatewayConnectionDetails } from "../gateway/call.js";
+import { resolveGatewayClientBootstrap } from "../gateway/client-bootstrap.js";
 import { GatewayClient } from "../gateway/client.js";
-import { resolveGatewayConnectionAuth } from "../gateway/connection-auth.js";
 import { isMainModule } from "../infra/is-main.js";
 import { GATEWAY_CLIENT_MODES, GATEWAY_CLIENT_NAMES } from "../utils/message-channel.js";
 import { readSecretFromFile } from "./secret-file.js";
@@ -14,25 +13,14 @@ import { normalizeAcpProvenanceMode, type AcpServerOptions } from "./types.js";
 
 export async function serveAcpGateway(opts: AcpServerOptions = {}): Promise<void> {
   const cfg = loadConfig();
-  const connection = buildGatewayConnectionDetails({
-    config: cfg,
-    url: opts.gatewayUrl,
-  });
-  const gatewayUrlOverrideSource =
-    connection.urlSource === "cli --url"
-      ? "cli"
-      : connection.urlSource === "env OPENCLAW_GATEWAY_URL"
-        ? "env"
-        : undefined;
-  const creds = await resolveGatewayConnectionAuth({
+  const bootstrap = await resolveGatewayClientBootstrap({
     config: cfg,
+    gatewayUrl: opts.gatewayUrl,
     explicitAuth: {
       token: opts.gatewayToken,
       password: opts.gatewayPassword,
     },
     env: process.env,
-    urlOverride: gatewayUrlOverrideSource ? connection.url : undefined,
-    urlOverrideSource: gatewayUrlOverrideSource,
   });
 
   let agent: AcpGatewayAgent | null = null;
@@ -64,9 +52,9 @@ export async function serveAcpGateway(opts: AcpServerOptions = {}): Promise<void
   };
 
   const gateway = new GatewayClient({
-    url: connection.url,
-    token: creds.token,
-    password: creds.password,
+    url: bootstrap.url,
+    token: bootstrap.auth.token,
+    password: bootstrap.auth.password,
     clientName: GATEWAY_CLIENT_NAMES.CLI,
     clientDisplayName: "ACP",
     clientVersion: "acp",
diff --git a/src/cli/daemon-cli.coverage.test.ts b/src/cli/daemon-cli.coverage.test.ts
index 05084023d58..8b8c18c1f1b 100644
--- a/src/cli/daemon-cli.coverage.test.ts
+++ b/src/cli/daemon-cli.coverage.test.ts
@@ -15,7 +15,9 @@ const serviceRestart = vi.fn().mockResolvedValue({ outcome: "completed" });
 const serviceIsLoaded = vi.fn().mockResolvedValue(false);
 const serviceReadCommand = vi.fn().mockResolvedValue(null);
 const serviceReadRuntime = vi.fn().mockResolvedValue({ status: "running" });
-const resolveGatewayProbeAuthWithSecretInputs = vi.fn(async (_opts?: unknown) => ({}));
+const resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs = vi.fn(async (_opts?: unknown) => ({
+  auth: {},
+}));
 const findExtraGatewayServices = vi.fn(async (_env: unknown, _opts?: unknown) => []);
 const inspectPortUsage = vi.fn(async (port: number) => ({
   port,
@@ -62,8 +64,8 @@ vi.mock("./daemon-cli/probe.js", () => ({
 }));
 
 vi.mock("../gateway/probe-auth.js", () => ({
-  resolveGatewayProbeAuthWithSecretInputs: (opts: unknown) =>
-    resolveGatewayProbeAuthWithSecretInputs(opts),
+  resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs: (opts: unknown) =>
+    resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs(opts),
 }));
 
 vi.mock("../daemon/program-args.js", () => ({
@@ -157,7 +159,8 @@ describe("daemon-cli coverage", () => {
     delete process.env.OPENCLAW_GATEWAY_PORT;
     delete process.env.OPENCLAW_PROFILE;
     serviceReadCommand.mockResolvedValue(null);
-    resolveGatewayProbeAuthWithSecretInputs.mockClear();
+    resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs.mockClear();
+    findExtraGatewayServices.mockClear();
     buildGatewayInstallPlan.mockClear();
   });
 
@@ -175,7 +178,7 @@ describe("daemon-cli coverage", () => {
     expect(probeGatewayStatus).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
       expect.objectContaining({ url: "ws://127.0.0.1:18789" }),
     );
-    expect(findExtraGatewayServices).toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(findExtraGatewayServices).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
     expect(inspectPortUsage).toHaveBeenCalled();
   });
 
diff --git a/src/cli/daemon-cli/gateway-token-drift.ts b/src/cli/daemon-cli/gateway-token-drift.ts
index 7e5aa4f377a..ea724828026 100644
--- a/src/cli/daemon-cli/gateway-token-drift.ts
+++ b/src/cli/daemon-cli/gateway-token-drift.ts
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
 import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../../config/config.js";
-import { resolveSecretInputRef } from "../../config/types.secrets.js";
-import { createGatewayCredentialPlan, trimToUndefined } from "../../gateway/credential-planner.js";
+import { resolveGatewayAuthToken } from "../../gateway/auth-token-resolution.js";
+import { createGatewayCredentialPlan } from "../../gateway/credential-planner.js";
 import { GatewaySecretRefUnavailableError } from "../../gateway/credentials.js";
-import { resolveConfiguredSecretInputString } from "../../gateway/resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
 
 function authModeDisablesToken(mode: string | undefined): boolean {
   return mode === "password" || mode === "none" || mode === "trusted-proxy";
@@ -35,24 +34,17 @@ export async function resolveGatewayTokenForDriftCheck(params: {
     return undefined;
   }
 
-  const tokenInput = params.cfg.gateway?.auth?.token;
-  const tokenRef = resolveSecretInputRef({
-    value: tokenInput,
-    defaults: params.cfg.secrets?.defaults,
-  }).ref;
-  if (!tokenRef) {
-    return trimToUndefined(tokenInput);
-  }
-
-  const resolved = await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
-    config: params.cfg,
+  const resolved = await resolveGatewayAuthToken({
+    cfg: params.cfg,
     env,
-    value: tokenInput,
-    path: "gateway.auth.token",
+    envFallback: "never",
     unresolvedReasonStyle: "detailed",
   });
-  if (resolved.value) {
-    return resolved.value;
+  if (resolved.token) {
+    return resolved.token;
+  }
+  if (!resolved.secretRefConfigured) {
+    return undefined;
   }
   throw new GatewaySecretRefUnavailableError("gateway.auth.token");
 }
diff --git a/src/cli/daemon-cli/status.gather.ts b/src/cli/daemon-cli/status.gather.ts
index eedad89cd17..86985e39080 100644
--- a/src/cli/daemon-cli/status.gather.ts
+++ b/src/cli/daemon-cli/status.gather.ts
@@ -15,11 +15,7 @@ import type { FindExtraGatewayServicesOptions } from "../../daemon/inspect.js";
 import type { ServiceConfigAudit } from "../../daemon/service-audit.js";
 import type { GatewayServiceRuntime } from "../../daemon/service-runtime.js";
 import { resolveGatewayService } from "../../daemon/service.js";
-import {
-  isGatewaySecretRefUnavailableError,
-  resolveGatewayProbeCredentialsFromConfig,
-  trimToUndefined,
-} from "../../gateway/credentials.js";
+import { trimToUndefined } from "../../gateway/credentials.js";
 import {
   inspectBestEffortPrimaryTailnetIPv4,
   resolveBestEffortGatewayBindHostForDisplay,
@@ -190,10 +186,6 @@ function shouldReportPortUsage(status: PortUsageStatus | undefined, rpcOk?: bool
   return true;
 }
 
-function parseGatewaySecretRefPathFromError(error: unknown): string | null {
-  return isGatewaySecretRefUnavailableError(error) ? error.path : null;
-}
-
 async function loadDaemonConfigContext(
   serviceEnv?: Record<string, string>,
 ): Promise<DaemonConfigContext> {
@@ -408,43 +400,20 @@ export async function gatherDaemonStatus(
   let rpcAuthWarning: string | undefined;
   if (opts.probe) {
     const probeMode = daemonCfg.gateway?.mode === "remote" ? "remote" : "local";
-    try {
-      daemonProbeAuth = resolveGatewayProbeCredentialsFromConfig({
-        cfg: daemonCfg,
-        mode: probeMode,
-        env: mergedDaemonEnv as NodeJS.ProcessEnv,
-        explicitAuth: {
-          token: opts.rpc.token,
-          password: opts.rpc.password,
-        },
-      });
-    } catch (error) {
-      const refPath = parseGatewaySecretRefPathFromError(error);
-      if (!refPath) {
-        throw error;
-      }
-      try {
-        daemonProbeAuth = await loadGatewayProbeAuthModule().then(
-          ({ resolveGatewayProbeAuthWithSecretInputs }) =>
-            resolveGatewayProbeAuthWithSecretInputs({
-              cfg: daemonCfg,
-              mode: probeMode,
-              env: mergedDaemonEnv as NodeJS.ProcessEnv,
-              explicitAuth: {
-                token: opts.rpc.token,
-                password: opts.rpc.password,
-              },
-            }),
-        );
-      } catch (fallbackError) {
-        const fallbackRefPath = parseGatewaySecretRefPathFromError(fallbackError);
-        if (!fallbackRefPath) {
-          throw fallbackError;
-        }
-        daemonProbeAuth = undefined;
-        rpcAuthWarning = `${fallbackRefPath} SecretRef is unavailable in this command path; probing without configured auth credentials.`;
-      }
-    }
+    const probeAuthResolution = await loadGatewayProbeAuthModule().then(
+      ({ resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs }) =>
+        resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs({
+          cfg: daemonCfg,
+          mode: probeMode,
+          env: mergedDaemonEnv as NodeJS.ProcessEnv,
+          explicitAuth: {
+            token: opts.rpc.token,
+            password: opts.rpc.password,
+          },
+        }),
+    );
+    daemonProbeAuth = probeAuthResolution.auth;
+    rpcAuthWarning = probeAuthResolution.warning;
   }
 
   const rpc = opts.probe
diff --git a/src/commands/dashboard.ts b/src/commands/dashboard.ts
index 6957c200cfc..6bd5ef03a40 100644
--- a/src/commands/dashboard.ts
+++ b/src/commands/dashboard.ts
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 import { readConfigFileSnapshot, resolveGatewayPort } from "../config/config.js";
-import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/types.js";
-import { readGatewayTokenEnv } from "../gateway/credentials.js";
-import { resolveConfiguredSecretInputWithFallback } from "../gateway/resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
+import { resolveGatewayAuthToken } from "../gateway/auth-token-resolution.js";
 import { copyToClipboard } from "../infra/clipboard.js";
 import type { RuntimeEnv } from "../runtime.js";
 import { defaultRuntime } from "../runtime.js";
@@ -16,37 +14,6 @@ type DashboardOptions = {
   noOpen?: boolean;
 };
 
-async function resolveDashboardToken(
-  cfg: OpenClawConfig,
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv = process.env,
-): Promise<{
-  token?: string;
-  source?: "config" | "env" | "secretRef";
-  unresolvedRefReason?: string;
-  tokenSecretRefConfigured: boolean;
-}> {
-  const resolved = await resolveConfiguredSecretInputWithFallback({
-    config: cfg,
-    env,
-    value: cfg.gateway?.auth?.token,
-    path: "gateway.auth.token",
-    readFallback: () => readGatewayTokenEnv(env),
-  });
-  return {
-    token: resolved.value,
-    source:
-      resolved.source === "config"
-        ? "config"
-        : resolved.source === "secretRef"
-          ? "secretRef"
-          : resolved.source === "fallback"
-            ? "env"
-            : undefined,
-    unresolvedRefReason: resolved.unresolvedRefReason,
-    tokenSecretRefConfigured: resolved.secretRefConfigured,
-  };
-}
-
 export async function dashboardCommand(
   runtime: RuntimeEnv = defaultRuntime,
   options: DashboardOptions = {},
@@ -57,7 +24,11 @@ export async function dashboardCommand(
   const bind = cfg.gateway?.bind ?? "loopback";
   const basePath = cfg.gateway?.controlUi?.basePath;
   const customBindHost = cfg.gateway?.customBindHost;
-  const resolvedToken = await resolveDashboardToken(cfg, process.env);
+  const resolvedToken = await resolveGatewayAuthToken({
+    cfg,
+    env: process.env,
+    envFallback: "always",
+  });
   const token = resolvedToken.token ?? "";
 
   // LAN URLs fail secure-context checks in browsers.
@@ -69,14 +40,14 @@ export async function dashboardCommand(
     basePath,
   });
   // Avoid embedding externally managed SecretRef tokens in terminal/clipboard/browser args.
-  const includeTokenInUrl = token.length > 0 && !resolvedToken.tokenSecretRefConfigured;
+  const includeTokenInUrl = token.length > 0 && !resolvedToken.secretRefConfigured;
   // Prefer URL fragment to avoid leaking auth tokens via query params.
   const dashboardUrl = includeTokenInUrl
     ? `${links.httpUrl}#token=${encodeURIComponent(token)}`
     : links.httpUrl;
 
   runtime.log(`Dashboard URL: ${dashboardUrl}`);
-  if (resolvedToken.tokenSecretRefConfigured && token) {
+  if (resolvedToken.secretRefConfigured && token) {
     runtime.log(
       "Token auto-auth is disabled for SecretRef-managed gateway.auth.token; use your external token source if prompted.",
     );
diff --git a/src/commands/doctor-gateway-auth-token.ts b/src/commands/doctor-gateway-auth-token.ts
index 8bbac6722fc..2767d39100c 100644
--- a/src/commands/doctor-gateway-auth-token.ts
+++ b/src/commands/doctor-gateway-auth-token.ts
@@ -1,22 +1,19 @@
 import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/config.js";
 export { shouldRequireGatewayTokenForInstall } from "../gateway/auth-install-policy.js";
-import { readGatewayTokenEnv } from "../gateway/credentials.js";
-import { resolveConfiguredSecretInputWithFallback } from "../gateway/resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
+import { resolveGatewayAuthToken } from "../gateway/auth-token-resolution.js";
 
 export async function resolveGatewayAuthTokenForService(
   cfg: OpenClawConfig,
   env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv,
 ): Promise<{ token?: string; unavailableReason?: string }> {
-  const resolved = await resolveConfiguredSecretInputWithFallback({
-    config: cfg,
+  const resolved = await resolveGatewayAuthToken({
+    cfg,
     env,
-    value: cfg.gateway?.auth?.token,
-    path: "gateway.auth.token",
     unresolvedReasonStyle: "detailed",
-    readFallback: () => readGatewayTokenEnv(env),
+    envFallback: "always",
   });
-  if (resolved.value) {
-    return { token: resolved.value };
+  if (resolved.token) {
+    return { token: resolved.token };
   }
   if (!resolved.secretRefConfigured) {
     return {};
diff --git a/src/commands/gateway-install-token.ts b/src/commands/gateway-install-token.ts
index 49630a5e967..181ae57cf34 100644
--- a/src/commands/gateway-install-token.ts
+++ b/src/commands/gateway-install-token.ts
@@ -7,10 +7,8 @@ import {
 import { resolveSecretInputRef } from "../config/types.secrets.js";
 import { shouldRequireGatewayTokenForInstall } from "../gateway/auth-install-policy.js";
 import { hasAmbiguousGatewayAuthModeConfig } from "../gateway/auth-mode-policy.js";
+import { resolveGatewayAuthToken } from "../gateway/auth-token-resolution.js";
 import { resolveGatewayAuth } from "../gateway/auth.js";
-import { readGatewayTokenEnv } from "../gateway/credentials.js";
-import { secretRefKey } from "../secrets/ref-contract.js";
-import { resolveSecretRefValues } from "../secrets/resolve.js";
 import { randomToken } from "./onboard-helpers.js";
 
 type GatewayInstallTokenOptions = {
@@ -28,41 +26,6 @@ export type GatewayInstallTokenResolution = {
   warnings: string[];
 };
 
-function resolveConfiguredGatewayInstallToken(params: {
-  config: OpenClawConfig;
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
-  explicitToken?: string;
-  tokenRef: unknown;
-}): string | undefined {
-  const configToken =
-    params.tokenRef || typeof params.config.gateway?.auth?.token !== "string"
-      ? undefined
-      : params.config.gateway.auth.token.trim() || undefined;
-  const explicitToken = params.explicitToken?.trim() || undefined;
-  const envToken = readGatewayTokenEnv(params.env);
-  return explicitToken || configToken || (params.tokenRef ? undefined : envToken);
-}
-
-async function validateGatewayInstallTokenSecretRef(params: {
-  tokenRef: NonNullable<ReturnType<typeof resolveSecretInputRef>["ref"]>;
-  config: OpenClawConfig;
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
-}): Promise<string | undefined> {
-  try {
-    const resolved = await resolveSecretRefValues([params.tokenRef], {
-      config: params.config,
-      env: params.env,
-    });
-    const value = resolved.get(secretRefKey(params.tokenRef));
-    if (typeof value !== "string" || value.trim().length === 0) {
-      throw new Error("gateway.auth.token resolved to an empty or non-string value.");
-    }
-    return undefined;
-  } catch (err) {
-    return `gateway.auth.token SecretRef is configured but unresolved (${String(err)}).`;
-  }
-}
-
 async function maybePersistAutoGeneratedGatewayInstallToken(params: {
   token: string;
   config: OpenClawConfig;
@@ -128,13 +91,14 @@ export async function resolveGatewayInstallToken(
 ): Promise<GatewayInstallTokenResolution> {
   const cfg = options.config;
   const warnings: string[] = [];
-  const tokenRef = resolveSecretInputRef({
-    value: cfg.gateway?.auth?.token,
-    defaults: cfg.secrets?.defaults,
-  }).ref;
-  const tokenRefConfigured = Boolean(tokenRef);
 
   if (hasAmbiguousGatewayAuthModeConfig(cfg)) {
+    const tokenRefConfigured = Boolean(
+      resolveSecretInputRef({
+        value: cfg.gateway?.auth?.token,
+        defaults: cfg.secrets?.defaults,
+      }).ref,
+    );
     return {
       token: undefined,
       tokenRefConfigured,
@@ -150,31 +114,43 @@ export async function resolveGatewayInstallToken(
   });
   const needsToken =
     shouldRequireGatewayTokenForInstall(cfg, options.env) && !resolvedAuth.allowTailscale;
+  if (!needsToken) {
+    const tokenRefConfigured = Boolean(
+      resolveSecretInputRef({
+        value: cfg.gateway?.auth?.token,
+        defaults: cfg.secrets?.defaults,
+      }).ref,
+    );
+    return {
+      token: undefined,
+      tokenRefConfigured,
+      unavailableReason: undefined,
+      warnings,
+    };
+  }
 
-  let token = resolveConfiguredGatewayInstallToken({
-    config: cfg,
+  const resolvedToken = await resolveGatewayAuthToken({
+    cfg,
     env: options.env,
     explicitToken: options.explicitToken,
-    tokenRef,
+    envFallback: "no-secret-ref",
+    unresolvedReasonStyle: "detailed",
   });
+  const tokenRefConfigured = resolvedToken.secretRefConfigured;
+  let token = resolvedToken.source === "secretRef" ? undefined : resolvedToken.token;
   let unavailableReason: string | undefined;
 
-  if (tokenRef && !token && needsToken) {
-    unavailableReason = await validateGatewayInstallTokenSecretRef({
-      tokenRef,
-      config: cfg,
-      env: options.env,
-    });
-    if (!unavailableReason) {
-      warnings.push(
-        "gateway.auth.token is SecretRef-managed; install will not persist a resolved token in service environment. Ensure the SecretRef is resolvable in the daemon runtime context.",
-      );
-    }
+  if (tokenRefConfigured && resolvedToken.source === "secretRef" && needsToken) {
+    warnings.push(
+      "gateway.auth.token is SecretRef-managed; install will not persist a resolved token in service environment. Ensure the SecretRef is resolvable in the daemon runtime context.",
+    );
+  } else if (tokenRefConfigured && !token && needsToken) {
+    unavailableReason = `gateway.auth.token SecretRef is configured but unresolved (${resolvedToken.unresolvedRefReason ?? "unknown reason"}).`;
   }
 
   const allowAutoGenerate = options.autoGenerateWhenMissing ?? false;
   const persistGeneratedToken = options.persistGeneratedToken ?? false;
-  if (!token && needsToken && !tokenRef && allowAutoGenerate) {
+  if (!token && !tokenRefConfigured && allowAutoGenerate) {
     token = randomToken();
     warnings.push(
       persistGeneratedToken
diff --git a/src/commands/gateway-status/helpers.ts b/src/commands/gateway-status/helpers.ts
index e2597bbc89f..62955a30736 100644
--- a/src/commands/gateway-status/helpers.ts
+++ b/src/commands/gateway-status/helpers.ts
@@ -2,10 +2,9 @@ import { parseTimeoutMsWithFallback } from "../../cli/parse-timeout.js";
 import { resolveGatewayPort } from "../../config/config.js";
 import type { OpenClawConfig, ConfigFileSnapshot } from "../../config/types.js";
 import { hasConfiguredSecretInput } from "../../config/types.secrets.js";
-import { readGatewayPasswordEnv, readGatewayTokenEnv } from "../../gateway/credentials.js";
+import { resolveGatewayProbeSurfaceAuth } from "../../gateway/auth-surface-resolution.js";
 import { isLoopbackHost } from "../../gateway/net.js";
 import type { GatewayProbeResult } from "../../gateway/probe.js";
-import { resolveConfiguredSecretInputString } from "../../gateway/resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
 import { inspectBestEffortPrimaryTailnetIPv4 } from "../../infra/network-discovery-display.js";
 import { colorize, theme } from "../../terminal/theme.js";
 import { pickGatewaySelfPresence } from "../gateway-presence.js";
@@ -169,92 +168,10 @@ export async function resolveAuthForTarget(
     return { token: tokenOverride, password: passwordOverride };
   }
 
-  const diagnostics: string[] = [];
-  const authMode = cfg.gateway?.auth?.mode;
-  const tokenOnly = authMode === "token";
-  const passwordOnly = authMode === "password";
-
-  const resolveToken = async (value: unknown, path: string): Promise<string | undefined> => {
-    const tokenResolution = await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
-      config: cfg,
-      env: process.env,
-      value,
-      path,
-      unresolvedReasonStyle: "detailed",
-    });
-    if (tokenResolution.unresolvedRefReason) {
-      diagnostics.push(tokenResolution.unresolvedRefReason);
-    }
-    return tokenResolution.value;
-  };
-  const resolvePassword = async (value: unknown, path: string): Promise<string | undefined> => {
-    const passwordResolution = await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
-      config: cfg,
-      env: process.env,
-      value,
-      path,
-      unresolvedReasonStyle: "detailed",
-    });
-    if (passwordResolution.unresolvedRefReason) {
-      diagnostics.push(passwordResolution.unresolvedRefReason);
-    }
-    return passwordResolution.value;
-  };
-  const withDiagnostics = <T extends { token?: string; password?: string }>(result: T) =>
-    diagnostics.length > 0 ? { ...result, diagnostics } : result;
-
-  if (target.kind === "configRemote" || target.kind === "sshTunnel") {
-    const remoteTokenValue = cfg.gateway?.remote?.token;
-    const remotePasswordValue = (cfg.gateway?.remote as { password?: unknown } | undefined)
-      ?.password;
-    const token = await resolveToken(remoteTokenValue, "gateway.remote.token");
-    const password = token
-      ? undefined
-      : await resolvePassword(remotePasswordValue, "gateway.remote.password");
-    return withDiagnostics({ token, password });
-  }
-
-  const authDisabled = authMode === "none" || authMode === "trusted-proxy";
-  if (authDisabled) {
-    return {};
-  }
-
-  const envToken = readGatewayTokenEnv();
-  const envPassword = readGatewayPasswordEnv();
-  if (tokenOnly) {
-    const token = await resolveToken(cfg.gateway?.auth?.token, "gateway.auth.token");
-    if (token) {
-      return withDiagnostics({ token });
-    }
-    if (envToken) {
-      return { token: envToken };
-    }
-    return withDiagnostics({});
-  }
-  if (passwordOnly) {
-    const password = await resolvePassword(cfg.gateway?.auth?.password, "gateway.auth.password");
-    if (password) {
-      return withDiagnostics({ password });
-    }
-    if (envPassword) {
-      return { password: envPassword };
-    }
-    return withDiagnostics({});
-  }
-
-  const token = await resolveToken(cfg.gateway?.auth?.token, "gateway.auth.token");
-  if (token) {
-    return withDiagnostics({ token });
-  }
-  if (envToken) {
-    return { token: envToken };
-  }
-  if (envPassword) {
-    return withDiagnostics({ password: envPassword });
-  }
-  const password = await resolvePassword(cfg.gateway?.auth?.password, "gateway.auth.password");
-
-  return withDiagnostics({ token, password });
+  return resolveGatewayProbeSurfaceAuth({
+    config: cfg,
+    surface: target.kind === "configRemote" || target.kind === "sshTunnel" ? "remote" : "local",
+  });
 }
 
 export { pickGatewaySelfPresence };
diff --git a/src/commands/status.gateway-probe.ts b/src/commands/status.gateway-probe.ts
index e401d8c28ba..8371a85a30c 100644
--- a/src/commands/status.gateway-probe.ts
+++ b/src/commands/status.gateway-probe.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,8 @@
 import type { loadConfig } from "../config/config.js";
-import { resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs } from "../gateway/probe-auth.js";
+import {
+  resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs,
+  resolveGatewayProbeTarget,
+} from "../gateway/probe-auth.js";
 export { pickGatewaySelfPresence } from "./gateway-presence.js";
 
 export async function resolveGatewayProbeAuthResolution(
@@ -11,9 +14,10 @@ export async function resolveGatewayProbeAuthResolution(
   };
   warning?: string;
 }> {
+  const target = resolveGatewayProbeTarget(cfg);
   return resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs({
     cfg,
-    mode: cfg.gateway?.mode === "remote" ? "remote" : "local",
+    mode: target.mode,
     env: process.env,
   });
 }
diff --git a/src/gateway/auth-config-utils.ts b/src/gateway/auth-config-utils.ts
index 7f1ca9fd0ed..1c66a2e42e5 100644
--- a/src/gateway/auth-config-utils.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/auth-config-utils.ts
@@ -1,35 +1,139 @@
 import type { GatewayAuthConfig, OpenClawConfig } from "../config/config.js";
-import { resolveSecretInputRef } from "../config/types.secrets.js";
+import { hasConfiguredSecretInput } from "../config/types.secrets.js";
 import { resolveRequiredConfiguredSecretRefInputString } from "./resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
+import {
+  assignResolvedGatewaySecretInput,
+  readGatewaySecretInputValue,
+  type SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath,
+} from "./secret-input-paths.js";
 
-export function withGatewayAuthPassword(cfg: OpenClawConfig, password: string): OpenClawConfig {
-  return {
-    ...cfg,
-    gateway: {
-      ...cfg.gateway,
-      auth: {
-        ...cfg.gateway?.auth,
-        password,
-      },
-    },
-  };
-}
+export type GatewayAuthSecretInputPath = Extract<
+  SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath,
+  "gateway.auth.token" | "gateway.auth.password"
+>;
 
-function shouldResolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(params: {
+export type GatewayAuthSecretRefResolutionParams = {
+  cfg: OpenClawConfig;
+  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
   mode?: GatewayAuthConfig["mode"];
   hasPasswordCandidate: boolean;
   hasTokenCandidate: boolean;
+};
+
+export function hasConfiguredGatewayAuthSecretInput(
+  cfg: OpenClawConfig,
+  path: GatewayAuthSecretInputPath,
+): boolean {
+  return hasConfiguredSecretInput(readGatewaySecretInputValue(cfg, path), cfg.secrets?.defaults);
+}
+
+export function shouldResolveGatewayAuthSecretRef(params: {
+  mode?: GatewayAuthConfig["mode"];
+  path: GatewayAuthSecretInputPath;
+  hasPasswordCandidate: boolean;
+  hasTokenCandidate: boolean;
 }): boolean {
-  if (params.hasPasswordCandidate) {
+  const isTokenPath = params.path === "gateway.auth.token";
+  const hasPathCandidate = isTokenPath ? params.hasTokenCandidate : params.hasPasswordCandidate;
+  if (hasPathCandidate) {
     return false;
   }
-  if (params.mode === "password") {
+  if (params.mode === (isTokenPath ? "token" : "password")) {
     return true;
   }
   if (params.mode === "token" || params.mode === "none" || params.mode === "trusted-proxy") {
     return false;
   }
-  return !params.hasTokenCandidate;
+  if (params.mode === "password") {
+    return !isTokenPath;
+  }
+  return isTokenPath ? !params.hasPasswordCandidate : !params.hasTokenCandidate;
+}
+
+export function shouldResolveGatewayTokenSecretRef(
+  params: Omit<GatewayAuthSecretRefResolutionParams, "cfg" | "env">,
+): boolean {
+  return shouldResolveGatewayAuthSecretRef({
+    mode: params.mode,
+    path: "gateway.auth.token",
+    hasPasswordCandidate: params.hasPasswordCandidate,
+    hasTokenCandidate: params.hasTokenCandidate,
+  });
+}
+
+export function shouldResolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(
+  params: Omit<GatewayAuthSecretRefResolutionParams, "cfg" | "env">,
+): boolean {
+  return shouldResolveGatewayAuthSecretRef({
+    mode: params.mode,
+    path: "gateway.auth.password",
+    hasPasswordCandidate: params.hasPasswordCandidate,
+    hasTokenCandidate: params.hasTokenCandidate,
+  });
+}
+
+export async function resolveGatewayAuthSecretRefValue(params: {
+  cfg: OpenClawConfig;
+  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
+  path: GatewayAuthSecretInputPath;
+  shouldResolve: boolean;
+}): Promise<string | undefined> {
+  if (!params.shouldResolve) {
+    return undefined;
+  }
+  const value = await resolveRequiredConfiguredSecretRefInputString({
+    config: params.cfg,
+    env: params.env,
+    value: readGatewaySecretInputValue(params.cfg, params.path),
+    path: params.path,
+  });
+  if (!value) {
+    return undefined;
+  }
+  return value;
+}
+
+export async function resolveGatewayTokenSecretRefValue(
+  params: GatewayAuthSecretRefResolutionParams,
+): Promise<string | undefined> {
+  return resolveGatewayAuthSecretRefValue({
+    cfg: params.cfg,
+    env: params.env,
+    path: "gateway.auth.token",
+    shouldResolve: shouldResolveGatewayTokenSecretRef(params),
+  });
+}
+
+export async function resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRefValue(
+  params: GatewayAuthSecretRefResolutionParams,
+): Promise<string | undefined> {
+  return resolveGatewayAuthSecretRefValue({
+    cfg: params.cfg,
+    env: params.env,
+    path: "gateway.auth.password",
+    shouldResolve: shouldResolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(params),
+  });
+}
+
+export async function resolveGatewayAuthSecretRef(params: {
+  cfg: OpenClawConfig;
+  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
+  path: GatewayAuthSecretInputPath;
+  shouldResolve: boolean;
+}): Promise<OpenClawConfig> {
+  const value = await resolveGatewayAuthSecretRefValue(params);
+  if (!value) {
+    return params.cfg;
+  }
+  const nextConfig = structuredClone(params.cfg);
+  nextConfig.gateway ??= {};
+  nextConfig.gateway.auth ??= {};
+  assignResolvedGatewaySecretInput({
+    config: nextConfig,
+    path: params.path,
+    value,
+  });
+  return nextConfig;
 }
 
 export async function resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(params: {
@@ -39,31 +143,30 @@ export async function resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(params: {
   hasPasswordCandidate: boolean;
   hasTokenCandidate: boolean;
 }): Promise<OpenClawConfig> {
-  const authPassword = params.cfg.gateway?.auth?.password;
-  const { ref } = resolveSecretInputRef({
-    value: authPassword,
-    defaults: params.cfg.secrets?.defaults,
-  });
-  if (!ref) {
-    return params.cfg;
-  }
-  if (
-    !shouldResolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef({
-      mode: params.mode,
-      hasPasswordCandidate: params.hasPasswordCandidate,
-      hasTokenCandidate: params.hasTokenCandidate,
-    })
-  ) {
-    return params.cfg;
-  }
-  const value = await resolveRequiredConfiguredSecretRefInputString({
-    config: params.cfg,
+  return resolveGatewayAuthSecretRef({
+    cfg: params.cfg,
     env: params.env,
-    value: authPassword,
     path: "gateway.auth.password",
+    shouldResolve: shouldResolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(params),
+  });
+}
+
+export async function materializeGatewayAuthSecretRefs(
+  params: GatewayAuthSecretRefResolutionParams,
+): Promise<OpenClawConfig> {
+  const cfgWithToken = await resolveGatewayAuthSecretRef({
+    cfg: params.cfg,
+    env: params.env,
+    path: "gateway.auth.token",
+    shouldResolve: shouldResolveGatewayTokenSecretRef(params),
+  });
+  return await resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef({
+    cfg: cfgWithToken,
+    env: params.env,
+    mode: params.mode,
+    hasPasswordCandidate: params.hasPasswordCandidate,
+    hasTokenCandidate:
+      params.hasTokenCandidate ||
+      hasConfiguredGatewayAuthSecretInput(cfgWithToken, "gateway.auth.token"),
   });
-  if (!value) {
-    return params.cfg;
-  }
-  return withGatewayAuthPassword(params.cfg, value);
 }
diff --git a/src/gateway/auth-surface-resolution.ts b/src/gateway/auth-surface-resolution.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..9d6e900566f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/gateway/auth-surface-resolution.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,289 @@
+import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/types.js";
+import { hasConfiguredSecretInput } from "../config/types.secrets.js";
+import {
+  readGatewayPasswordEnv,
+  readGatewayTokenEnv,
+  trimToUndefined,
+  type ExplicitGatewayAuth,
+} from "./credentials.js";
+import { resolveConfiguredSecretInputString } from "./resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
+
+type GatewayCredentialPath =
+  | "gateway.auth.token"
+  | "gateway.auth.password"
+  | "gateway.remote.token"
+  | "gateway.remote.password";
+
+type ResolvedGatewayCredential = {
+  value?: string;
+  unresolvedRefReason?: string;
+};
+
+async function resolveGatewayCredential(params: {
+  config: OpenClawConfig;
+  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
+  diagnostics: string[];
+  path: GatewayCredentialPath;
+  value: unknown;
+}): Promise<ResolvedGatewayCredential> {
+  const resolved = await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
+    config: params.config,
+    env: params.env,
+    value: params.value,
+    path: params.path,
+    unresolvedReasonStyle: "detailed",
+  });
+  if (resolved.unresolvedRefReason) {
+    params.diagnostics.push(resolved.unresolvedRefReason);
+  }
+  return resolved;
+}
+
+function withDiagnostics<T extends object>(params: {
+  diagnostics: string[];
+  result: T;
+}): T & { diagnostics?: string[] } {
+  return params.diagnostics.length > 0
+    ? { ...params.result, diagnostics: params.diagnostics }
+    : params.result;
+}
+
+export async function resolveGatewayProbeSurfaceAuth(params: {
+  config: OpenClawConfig;
+  env?: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
+  surface: "local" | "remote";
+}): Promise<{ token?: string; password?: string; diagnostics?: string[] }> {
+  const env = params.env ?? process.env;
+  const diagnostics: string[] = [];
+  const authMode = params.config.gateway?.auth?.mode;
+
+  if (params.surface === "remote") {
+    const remoteToken = await resolveGatewayCredential({
+      config: params.config,
+      env,
+      diagnostics,
+      path: "gateway.remote.token",
+      value: params.config.gateway?.remote?.token,
+    });
+    const remotePassword = remoteToken.value
+      ? { value: undefined }
+      : await resolveGatewayCredential({
+          config: params.config,
+          env,
+          diagnostics,
+          path: "gateway.remote.password",
+          value: params.config.gateway?.remote?.password,
+        });
+    return withDiagnostics({
+      diagnostics,
+      result: { token: remoteToken.value, password: remotePassword.value },
+    });
+  }
+
+  if (authMode === "none" || authMode === "trusted-proxy") {
+    return {};
+  }
+
+  const envToken = readGatewayTokenEnv(env);
+  const envPassword = readGatewayPasswordEnv(env);
+
+  if (authMode === "token") {
+    const token = await resolveGatewayCredential({
+      config: params.config,
+      env,
+      diagnostics,
+      path: "gateway.auth.token",
+      value: params.config.gateway?.auth?.token,
+    });
+    return token.value
+      ? withDiagnostics({ diagnostics, result: { token: token.value } })
+      : envToken
+        ? { token: envToken }
+        : withDiagnostics({ diagnostics, result: {} });
+  }
+
+  if (authMode === "password") {
+    const password = await resolveGatewayCredential({
+      config: params.config,
+      env,
+      diagnostics,
+      path: "gateway.auth.password",
+      value: params.config.gateway?.auth?.password,
+    });
+    return password.value
+      ? withDiagnostics({ diagnostics, result: { password: password.value } })
+      : envPassword
+        ? { password: envPassword }
+        : withDiagnostics({ diagnostics, result: {} });
+  }
+
+  const token = await resolveGatewayCredential({
+    config: params.config,
+    env,
+    diagnostics,
+    path: "gateway.auth.token",
+    value: params.config.gateway?.auth?.token,
+  });
+  if (token.value) {
+    return withDiagnostics({ diagnostics, result: { token: token.value } });
+  }
+  if (envToken) {
+    return { token: envToken };
+  }
+  if (envPassword) {
+    return withDiagnostics({ diagnostics, result: { password: envPassword } });
+  }
+  const password = await resolveGatewayCredential({
+    config: params.config,
+    env,
+    diagnostics,
+    path: "gateway.auth.password",
+    value: params.config.gateway?.auth?.password,
+  });
+  return withDiagnostics({
+    diagnostics,
+    result: { token: token.value, password: password.value },
+  });
+}
+
+export async function resolveGatewayInteractiveSurfaceAuth(params: {
+  config: OpenClawConfig;
+  env?: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
+  explicitAuth?: ExplicitGatewayAuth;
+  surface: "local" | "remote";
+}): Promise<{
+  token?: string;
+  password?: string;
+  failureReason?: string;
+}> {
+  const env = params.env ?? process.env;
+  const diagnostics: string[] = [];
+  const explicitToken = trimToUndefined(params.explicitAuth?.token);
+  const explicitPassword = trimToUndefined(params.explicitAuth?.password);
+  const envToken = readGatewayTokenEnv(env);
+  const envPassword = readGatewayPasswordEnv(env);
+
+  if (params.surface === "remote") {
+    const remoteToken = explicitToken
+      ? { value: explicitToken }
+      : await resolveGatewayCredential({
+          config: params.config,
+          env,
+          diagnostics,
+          path: "gateway.remote.token",
+          value: params.config.gateway?.remote?.token,
+        });
+    const remotePassword =
+      explicitPassword || envPassword
+        ? { value: explicitPassword ?? envPassword }
+        : await resolveGatewayCredential({
+            config: params.config,
+            env,
+            diagnostics,
+            path: "gateway.remote.password",
+            value: params.config.gateway?.remote?.password,
+          });
+    const token = explicitToken ?? remoteToken.value;
+    const password = explicitPassword ?? envPassword ?? remotePassword.value;
+    return token || password
+      ? { token, password }
+      : {
+          failureReason:
+            remoteToken.unresolvedRefReason ??
+            remotePassword.unresolvedRefReason ??
+            "Missing gateway auth credentials.",
+        };
+  }
+
+  const authMode = params.config.gateway?.auth?.mode;
+  if (authMode === "none" || authMode === "trusted-proxy") {
+    return {
+      token: explicitToken ?? envToken,
+      password: explicitPassword ?? envPassword,
+    };
+  }
+
+  const hasConfiguredToken = hasConfiguredSecretInput(
+    params.config.gateway?.auth?.token,
+    params.config.secrets?.defaults,
+  );
+  const hasConfiguredPassword = hasConfiguredSecretInput(
+    params.config.gateway?.auth?.password,
+    params.config.secrets?.defaults,
+  );
+
+  const resolveToken = async () => {
+    const localToken = explicitToken
+      ? { value: explicitToken }
+      : await resolveGatewayCredential({
+          config: params.config,
+          env,
+          diagnostics,
+          path: "gateway.auth.token",
+          value: params.config.gateway?.auth?.token,
+        });
+    const token = explicitToken ?? localToken.value ?? envToken;
+    return {
+      token,
+      failureReason: token
+        ? undefined
+        : (localToken.unresolvedRefReason ?? "Missing gateway auth token."),
+    };
+  };
+
+  const resolvePassword = async () => {
+    const localPassword =
+      explicitPassword || envPassword
+        ? { value: explicitPassword ?? envPassword }
+        : await resolveGatewayCredential({
+            config: params.config,
+            env,
+            diagnostics,
+            path: "gateway.auth.password",
+            value: params.config.gateway?.auth?.password,
+          });
+    const password = explicitPassword ?? envPassword ?? localPassword.value;
+    return {
+      password,
+      failureReason: password
+        ? undefined
+        : (localPassword.unresolvedRefReason ?? "Missing gateway auth password."),
+    };
+  };
+
+  if (authMode === "password") {
+    const password = await resolvePassword();
+    return {
+      token: explicitToken ?? envToken,
+      password: password.password,
+      failureReason: password.failureReason,
+    };
+  }
+
+  if (authMode === "token") {
+    const token = await resolveToken();
+    return {
+      token: token.token,
+      password: explicitPassword ?? envPassword,
+      failureReason: token.failureReason,
+    };
+  }
+
+  const shouldUsePassword =
+    Boolean(explicitPassword ?? envPassword) || (hasConfiguredPassword && !hasConfiguredToken);
+  if (shouldUsePassword) {
+    const password = await resolvePassword();
+    return {
+      token: explicitToken ?? envToken,
+      password: password.password,
+      failureReason: password.failureReason,
+    };
+  }
+
+  const token = await resolveToken();
+  return {
+    token: token.token,
+    password: explicitPassword ?? envPassword,
+    failureReason: token.failureReason,
+  };
+}
diff --git a/src/gateway/auth-token-resolution.ts b/src/gateway/auth-token-resolution.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..21c65200ccf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/gateway/auth-token-resolution.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/config.js";
+import { resolveSecretInputRef } from "../config/types.secrets.js";
+import { readGatewayTokenEnv, trimToUndefined } from "./credentials.js";
+import {
+  resolveConfiguredSecretInputString,
+  type SecretInputUnresolvedReasonStyle,
+} from "./resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
+
+export type GatewayAuthTokenResolutionSource = "explicit" | "config" | "secretRef" | "env";
+export type GatewayAuthTokenEnvFallback = "never" | "no-secret-ref" | "always";
+
+export async function resolveGatewayAuthToken(params: {
+  cfg: OpenClawConfig;
+  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
+  explicitToken?: string;
+  envFallback?: GatewayAuthTokenEnvFallback;
+  unresolvedReasonStyle?: SecretInputUnresolvedReasonStyle;
+}): Promise<{
+  token?: string;
+  source?: GatewayAuthTokenResolutionSource;
+  secretRefConfigured: boolean;
+  unresolvedRefReason?: string;
+}> {
+  const explicitToken = trimToUndefined(params.explicitToken);
+  if (explicitToken) {
+    return {
+      token: explicitToken,
+      source: "explicit",
+      secretRefConfigured: false,
+    };
+  }
+
+  const tokenInput = params.cfg.gateway?.auth?.token;
+  const tokenRef = resolveSecretInputRef({
+    value: tokenInput,
+    defaults: params.cfg.secrets?.defaults,
+  }).ref;
+  const envFallback = params.envFallback ?? "always";
+  const envToken = readGatewayTokenEnv(params.env);
+
+  if (!tokenRef) {
+    const configToken = trimToUndefined(tokenInput);
+    if (configToken) {
+      return {
+        token: configToken,
+        source: "config",
+        secretRefConfigured: false,
+      };
+    }
+    if (envFallback !== "never" && envToken) {
+      return {
+        token: envToken,
+        source: "env",
+        secretRefConfigured: false,
+      };
+    }
+    return { secretRefConfigured: false };
+  }
+
+  const resolved = await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
+    config: params.cfg,
+    env: params.env,
+    value: tokenInput,
+    path: "gateway.auth.token",
+    unresolvedReasonStyle: params.unresolvedReasonStyle,
+  });
+  if (resolved.value) {
+    return {
+      token: resolved.value,
+      source: "secretRef",
+      secretRefConfigured: true,
+    };
+  }
+  if (envFallback === "always" && envToken) {
+    return {
+      token: envToken,
+      source: "env",
+      secretRefConfigured: true,
+    };
+  }
+  return {
+    secretRefConfigured: true,
+    unresolvedRefReason: resolved.unresolvedRefReason,
+  };
+}
diff --git a/src/gateway/call.ts b/src/gateway/call.ts
index 582810c24d0..c7490840a48 100644
--- a/src/gateway/call.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/call.ts
@@ -43,6 +43,14 @@ import {
   type OperatorScope,
 } from "./method-scopes.js";
 import { PROTOCOL_VERSION } from "./protocol/index.js";
+import {
+  ALL_GATEWAY_SECRET_INPUT_PATHS,
+  assignResolvedGatewaySecretInput,
+  isSupportedGatewaySecretInputPath,
+  isTokenGatewaySecretInputPath,
+  readGatewaySecretInputValue,
+  type SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath,
+} from "./secret-input-paths.js";
 export type { GatewayConnectionDetails };
 
 type CallGatewayBaseOptions = {
@@ -364,44 +372,6 @@ async function resolveGatewayCredentialsWithEnv(
   return resolveGatewayCredentialsFromConfigWithSecretInputs({ context, env });
 }
 
-type SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath =
-  | "gateway.auth.token"
-  | "gateway.auth.password"
-  | "gateway.remote.token"
-  | "gateway.remote.password";
-
-const ALL_GATEWAY_SECRET_INPUT_PATHS: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath[] = [
-  "gateway.auth.token",
-  "gateway.auth.password",
-  "gateway.remote.token",
-  "gateway.remote.password",
-];
-
-function isSupportedGatewaySecretInputPath(path: string): path is SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath {
-  return (
-    path === "gateway.auth.token" ||
-    path === "gateway.auth.password" ||
-    path === "gateway.remote.token" ||
-    path === "gateway.remote.password"
-  );
-}
-
-function readGatewaySecretInputValue(
-  config: OpenClawConfig,
-  path: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath,
-): unknown {
-  if (path === "gateway.auth.token") {
-    return config.gateway?.auth?.token;
-  }
-  if (path === "gateway.auth.password") {
-    return config.gateway?.auth?.password;
-  }
-  if (path === "gateway.remote.token") {
-    return config.gateway?.remote?.token;
-  }
-  return config.gateway?.remote?.password;
-}
-
 function hasConfiguredGatewaySecretRef(
   config: OpenClawConfig,
   path: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath,
@@ -436,10 +406,6 @@ function resolveGatewayCredentialsFromConfigOptions(params: {
   } as const;
 }
 
-function isTokenGatewaySecretInputPath(path: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath): boolean {
-  return path === "gateway.auth.token" || path === "gateway.remote.token";
-}
-
 function localAuthModeAllowsGatewaySecretInputPath(params: {
   authMode: string | undefined;
   path: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath;
@@ -515,68 +481,14 @@ async function resolveConfiguredGatewaySecretInput(params: {
   path: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath;
   env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
 }): Promise<string | undefined> {
-  const { config, path, env } = params;
-  if (path === "gateway.auth.token") {
-    return resolveGatewaySecretInputString({
-      config,
-      value: config.gateway?.auth?.token,
-      path,
-      env,
-    });
-  }
-  if (path === "gateway.auth.password") {
-    return resolveGatewaySecretInputString({
-      config,
-      value: config.gateway?.auth?.password,
-      path,
-      env,
-    });
-  }
-  if (path === "gateway.remote.token") {
-    return resolveGatewaySecretInputString({
-      config,
-      value: config.gateway?.remote?.token,
-      path,
-      env,
-    });
-  }
   return resolveGatewaySecretInputString({
-    config,
-    value: config.gateway?.remote?.password,
-    path,
-    env,
+    config: params.config,
+    value: readGatewaySecretInputValue(params.config, params.path),
+    path: params.path,
+    env: params.env,
   });
 }
 
-function assignResolvedGatewaySecretInput(params: {
-  config: OpenClawConfig;
-  path: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath;
-  value: string | undefined;
-}): void {
-  const { config, path, value } = params;
-  if (path === "gateway.auth.token") {
-    if (config.gateway?.auth) {
-      config.gateway.auth.token = value;
-    }
-    return;
-  }
-  if (path === "gateway.auth.password") {
-    if (config.gateway?.auth) {
-      config.gateway.auth.password = value;
-    }
-    return;
-  }
-  if (path === "gateway.remote.token") {
-    if (config.gateway?.remote) {
-      config.gateway.remote.token = value;
-    }
-    return;
-  }
-  if (config.gateway?.remote) {
-    config.gateway.remote.password = value;
-  }
-}
-
 async function resolvePreferredGatewaySecretInputs(params: {
   context: ResolvedGatewayCallContext;
   env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
diff --git a/src/gateway/client-bootstrap.test.ts b/src/gateway/client-bootstrap.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..99c9b9c6e5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/gateway/client-bootstrap.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+import { beforeEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+
+const mockState = vi.hoisted(() => ({
+  buildGatewayConnectionDetails: vi.fn(),
+  resolveGatewayConnectionAuth: vi.fn(),
+}));
+
+vi.mock("./call.js", () => ({
+  buildGatewayConnectionDetails: (...args: unknown[]) =>
+    mockState.buildGatewayConnectionDetails(...args),
+}));
+
+vi.mock("./connection-auth.js", () => ({
+  resolveGatewayConnectionAuth: (...args: unknown[]) =>
+    mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth(...args),
+}));
+
+const { resolveGatewayClientBootstrap, resolveGatewayUrlOverrideSource } =
+  await import("./client-bootstrap.js");
+
+describe("resolveGatewayUrlOverrideSource", () => {
+  it("maps override url sources only", () => {
+    expect(resolveGatewayUrlOverrideSource("cli --url")).toBe("cli");
+    expect(resolveGatewayUrlOverrideSource("env OPENCLAW_GATEWAY_URL")).toBe("env");
+    expect(resolveGatewayUrlOverrideSource("config gateway.remote.url")).toBeUndefined();
+  });
+});
+
+describe("resolveGatewayClientBootstrap", () => {
+  beforeEach(() => {
+    mockState.buildGatewayConnectionDetails.mockReset();
+    mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth.mockReset();
+    mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth.mockResolvedValue({
+      token: undefined,
+      password: undefined,
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("passes cli override context into shared auth resolution", async () => {
+    mockState.buildGatewayConnectionDetails.mockReturnValue({
+      url: "wss://override.example/ws",
+      urlSource: "cli --url",
+    });
+
+    const result = await resolveGatewayClientBootstrap({
+      config: {} as never,
+      gatewayUrl: "wss://override.example/ws",
+      env: process.env,
+    });
+
+    expect(result).toEqual({
+      url: "wss://override.example/ws",
+      urlSource: "cli --url",
+      auth: {
+        token: undefined,
+        password: undefined,
+      },
+    });
+    expect(mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+      expect.objectContaining({
+        env: process.env,
+        urlOverride: "wss://override.example/ws",
+        urlOverrideSource: "cli",
+      }),
+    );
+  });
+
+  it("does not mark config-derived urls as overrides", async () => {
+    mockState.buildGatewayConnectionDetails.mockReturnValue({
+      url: "wss://gateway.example/ws",
+      urlSource: "config gateway.remote.url",
+    });
+
+    await resolveGatewayClientBootstrap({
+      config: {} as never,
+      env: process.env,
+    });
+
+    expect(mockState.resolveGatewayConnectionAuth).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+      expect.objectContaining({
+        env: process.env,
+        urlOverride: undefined,
+        urlOverrideSource: undefined,
+      }),
+    );
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/gateway/client-bootstrap.ts b/src/gateway/client-bootstrap.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..fe5715d6357
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/gateway/client-bootstrap.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/config.js";
+import { buildGatewayConnectionDetails } from "./call.js";
+import type { ExplicitGatewayAuth } from "./call.js";
+import { resolveGatewayConnectionAuth } from "./connection-auth.js";
+
+export function resolveGatewayUrlOverrideSource(urlSource: string): "cli" | "env" | undefined {
+  if (urlSource === "cli --url") {
+    return "cli";
+  }
+  if (urlSource === "env OPENCLAW_GATEWAY_URL") {
+    return "env";
+  }
+  return undefined;
+}
+
+export async function resolveGatewayClientBootstrap(params: {
+  config: OpenClawConfig;
+  gatewayUrl?: string;
+  explicitAuth?: ExplicitGatewayAuth;
+  env?: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
+}): Promise<{
+  url: string;
+  urlSource: string;
+  auth: {
+    token?: string;
+    password?: string;
+  };
+}> {
+  const connection = buildGatewayConnectionDetails({
+    config: params.config,
+    url: params.gatewayUrl,
+  });
+  const urlOverrideSource = resolveGatewayUrlOverrideSource(connection.urlSource);
+  const auth = await resolveGatewayConnectionAuth({
+    config: params.config,
+    explicitAuth: params.explicitAuth,
+    env: params.env ?? process.env,
+    urlOverride: urlOverrideSource ? connection.url : undefined,
+    urlOverrideSource,
+  });
+  return {
+    url: connection.url,
+    urlSource: connection.urlSource,
+    auth,
+  };
+}
diff --git a/src/gateway/operator-approvals-client.ts b/src/gateway/operator-approvals-client.ts
index 82ea7c80413..cb3b063bb43 100644
--- a/src/gateway/operator-approvals-client.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/operator-approvals-client.ts
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
 import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/config.js";
 import { GATEWAY_CLIENT_MODES, GATEWAY_CLIENT_NAMES } from "../utils/message-channel.js";
-import { buildGatewayConnectionDetails } from "./call.js";
+import { resolveGatewayClientBootstrap } from "./client-bootstrap.js";
 import { GatewayClient, type GatewayClientOptions } from "./client.js";
-import { resolveGatewayConnectionAuth } from "./connection-auth.js";
 
 export async function createOperatorApprovalsGatewayClient(
   params: Pick<
@@ -13,27 +12,16 @@ export async function createOperatorApprovalsGatewayClient(
     gatewayUrl?: string;
   },
 ): Promise<GatewayClient> {
-  const { url: gatewayUrl, urlSource } = buildGatewayConnectionDetails({
-    config: params.config,
-    url: params.gatewayUrl,
-  });
-  const gatewayUrlOverrideSource =
-    urlSource === "cli --url"
-      ? "cli"
-      : urlSource === "env OPENCLAW_GATEWAY_URL"
-        ? "env"
-        : undefined;
-  const auth = await resolveGatewayConnectionAuth({
+  const bootstrap = await resolveGatewayClientBootstrap({
     config: params.config,
+    gatewayUrl: params.gatewayUrl,
     env: process.env,
-    urlOverride: gatewayUrlOverrideSource ? gatewayUrl : undefined,
-    urlOverrideSource: gatewayUrlOverrideSource,
   });
 
   return new GatewayClient({
-    url: gatewayUrl,
-    token: auth.token,
-    password: auth.password,
+    url: bootstrap.url,
+    token: bootstrap.auth.token,
+    password: bootstrap.auth.password,
     clientName: GATEWAY_CLIENT_NAMES.GATEWAY_CLIENT,
     clientDisplayName: params.clientDisplayName,
     mode: GATEWAY_CLIENT_MODES.BACKEND,
diff --git a/src/gateway/probe-auth.test.ts b/src/gateway/probe-auth.test.ts
index b95eebf58db..217fb4cc092 100644
--- a/src/gateway/probe-auth.test.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/probe-auth.test.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/config.js";
 import {
   resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe,
   resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs,
+  resolveGatewayProbeTarget,
   resolveGatewayProbeAuthWithSecretInputs,
 } from "./probe-auth.js";
 
@@ -108,6 +109,39 @@ describe("resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe", () => {
   });
 });
 
+describe("resolveGatewayProbeTarget", () => {
+  it("falls back to local probe mode when remote mode is configured without remote url", () => {
+    expect(
+      resolveGatewayProbeTarget({
+        gateway: {
+          mode: "remote",
+        },
+      } as OpenClawConfig),
+    ).toEqual({
+      gatewayMode: "remote",
+      mode: "local",
+      remoteUrlMissing: true,
+    });
+  });
+
+  it("keeps remote probe mode when remote url is configured", () => {
+    expect(
+      resolveGatewayProbeTarget({
+        gateway: {
+          mode: "remote",
+          remote: {
+            url: "wss://gateway.example",
+          },
+        },
+      } as OpenClawConfig),
+    ).toEqual({
+      gatewayMode: "remote",
+      mode: "remote",
+      remoteUrlMissing: false,
+    });
+  });
+});
+
 describe("resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs", () => {
   it("resolves env SecretRef token via async secret-inputs path", async () => {
     const result = await resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs({
diff --git a/src/gateway/probe-auth.ts b/src/gateway/probe-auth.ts
index 423f0a77c3c..5f014080b63 100644
--- a/src/gateway/probe-auth.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/probe-auth.ts
@@ -6,6 +6,12 @@ import {
   resolveGatewayProbeCredentialsFromConfig,
 } from "./credentials.js";
 
+export type GatewayProbeTargetResolution = {
+  gatewayMode: "local" | "remote";
+  mode: "local" | "remote";
+  remoteUrlMissing: boolean;
+};
+
 function buildGatewayProbeCredentialPolicy(params: {
   cfg: OpenClawConfig;
   mode: "local" | "remote";
@@ -23,6 +29,42 @@ function buildGatewayProbeCredentialPolicy(params: {
   };
 }
 
+function resolveExplicitProbeAuth(explicitAuth?: ExplicitGatewayAuth): {
+  token?: string;
+  password?: string;
+} {
+  const token = explicitAuth?.token?.trim() || undefined;
+  const password = explicitAuth?.password?.trim() || undefined;
+  return { token, password };
+}
+
+function hasExplicitProbeAuth(auth: { token?: string; password?: string }): boolean {
+  return Boolean(auth.token || auth.password);
+}
+
+function buildUnresolvedProbeAuthWarning(path: string): string {
+  return `${path} SecretRef is unresolved in this command path; probing without configured auth credentials.`;
+}
+
+function resolveGatewayProbeWarning(error: unknown): string | undefined {
+  if (!isGatewaySecretRefUnavailableError(error)) {
+    throw error;
+  }
+  return buildUnresolvedProbeAuthWarning(error.path);
+}
+
+export function resolveGatewayProbeTarget(cfg: OpenClawConfig): GatewayProbeTargetResolution {
+  const gatewayMode = cfg.gateway?.mode === "remote" ? "remote" : "local";
+  const remoteUrlRaw =
+    typeof cfg.gateway?.remote?.url === "string" ? cfg.gateway.remote.url.trim() : "";
+  const remoteUrlMissing = gatewayMode === "remote" && !remoteUrlRaw;
+  return {
+    gatewayMode,
+    mode: gatewayMode === "remote" && !remoteUrlMissing ? "remote" : "local",
+    remoteUrlMissing,
+  };
+}
+
 export function resolveGatewayProbeAuth(params: {
   cfg: OpenClawConfig;
   mode: "local" | "remote";
@@ -57,14 +99,10 @@ export async function resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs(params: {
   auth: { token?: string; password?: string };
   warning?: string;
 }> {
-  const explicitToken = params.explicitAuth?.token?.trim();
-  const explicitPassword = params.explicitAuth?.password?.trim();
-  if (explicitToken || explicitPassword) {
+  const explicitAuth = resolveExplicitProbeAuth(params.explicitAuth);
+  if (hasExplicitProbeAuth(explicitAuth)) {
     return {
-      auth: {
-        ...(explicitToken ? { token: explicitToken } : {}),
-        ...(explicitPassword ? { password: explicitPassword } : {}),
-      },
+      auth: explicitAuth,
     };
   }
 
@@ -72,12 +110,9 @@ export async function resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafeWithSecretInputs(params: {
     const auth = await resolveGatewayProbeAuthWithSecretInputs(params);
     return { auth };
   } catch (error) {
-    if (!isGatewaySecretRefUnavailableError(error)) {
-      throw error;
-    }
     return {
       auth: {},
-      warning: `${error.path} SecretRef is unresolved in this command path; probing without configured auth credentials.`,
+      warning: resolveGatewayProbeWarning(error),
     };
   }
 }
@@ -91,26 +126,19 @@ export function resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe(params: {
   auth: { token?: string; password?: string };
   warning?: string;
 } {
-  const explicitToken = params.explicitAuth?.token?.trim();
-  const explicitPassword = params.explicitAuth?.password?.trim();
-  if (explicitToken || explicitPassword) {
+  const explicitAuth = resolveExplicitProbeAuth(params.explicitAuth);
+  if (hasExplicitProbeAuth(explicitAuth)) {
     return {
-      auth: {
-        ...(explicitToken ? { token: explicitToken } : {}),
-        ...(explicitPassword ? { password: explicitPassword } : {}),
-      },
+      auth: explicitAuth,
     };
   }
 
   try {
     return { auth: resolveGatewayProbeAuth(params) };
   } catch (error) {
-    if (!isGatewaySecretRefUnavailableError(error)) {
-      throw error;
-    }
     return {
       auth: {},
-      warning: `${error.path} SecretRef is unresolved in this command path; probing without configured auth credentials.`,
+      warning: resolveGatewayProbeWarning(error),
     };
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/gateway/secret-input-paths.ts b/src/gateway/secret-input-paths.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bd835e72dbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/gateway/secret-input-paths.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/config.js";
+
+export type SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath =
+  | "gateway.auth.token"
+  | "gateway.auth.password"
+  | "gateway.remote.token"
+  | "gateway.remote.password";
+
+export const ALL_GATEWAY_SECRET_INPUT_PATHS: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath[] = [
+  "gateway.auth.token",
+  "gateway.auth.password",
+  "gateway.remote.token",
+  "gateway.remote.password",
+];
+
+export function isSupportedGatewaySecretInputPath(
+  path: string,
+): path is SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath {
+  return ALL_GATEWAY_SECRET_INPUT_PATHS.includes(path as SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath);
+}
+
+export function readGatewaySecretInputValue(
+  config: OpenClawConfig,
+  path: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath,
+): unknown {
+  if (path === "gateway.auth.token") {
+    return config.gateway?.auth?.token;
+  }
+  if (path === "gateway.auth.password") {
+    return config.gateway?.auth?.password;
+  }
+  if (path === "gateway.remote.token") {
+    return config.gateway?.remote?.token;
+  }
+  return config.gateway?.remote?.password;
+}
+
+export function assignResolvedGatewaySecretInput(params: {
+  config: OpenClawConfig;
+  path: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath;
+  value: string | undefined;
+}): void {
+  const { config, path, value } = params;
+  if (path === "gateway.auth.token") {
+    if (config.gateway?.auth) {
+      config.gateway.auth.token = value;
+    }
+    return;
+  }
+  if (path === "gateway.auth.password") {
+    if (config.gateway?.auth) {
+      config.gateway.auth.password = value;
+    }
+    return;
+  }
+  if (path === "gateway.remote.token") {
+    if (config.gateway?.remote) {
+      config.gateway.remote.token = value;
+    }
+    return;
+  }
+  if (config.gateway?.remote) {
+    config.gateway.remote.password = value;
+  }
+}
+
+export function isTokenGatewaySecretInputPath(path: SupportedGatewaySecretInputPath): boolean {
+  return path === "gateway.auth.token" || path === "gateway.remote.token";
+}
diff --git a/src/gateway/server-methods/approval-shared.ts b/src/gateway/server-methods/approval-shared.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e710ab74745
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/gateway/server-methods/approval-shared.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,317 @@
+import { hasApprovalTurnSourceRoute } from "../../infra/approval-turn-source.js";
+import type { ExecApprovalDecision } from "../../infra/exec-approvals.js";
+import type {
+  ExecApprovalIdLookupResult,
+  ExecApprovalManager,
+  ExecApprovalRecord,
+} from "../exec-approval-manager.js";
+import { ErrorCodes, errorShape } from "../protocol/index.js";
+import type { GatewayClient, GatewayRequestContext, RespondFn } from "./types.js";
+
+export const APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS = {
+  reason: ErrorCodes.APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND,
+} as const;
+
+type PendingApprovalLookupError =
+  | "missing"
+  | {
+      code: ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST;
+      message: string;
+    };
+
+type ApprovalTurnSourceFields = {
+  turnSourceChannel?: string | null;
+  turnSourceAccountId?: string | null;
+};
+
+type RequestedApprovalEvent<TPayload extends ApprovalTurnSourceFields> = {
+  id: string;
+  request: TPayload;
+  createdAtMs: number;
+  expiresAtMs: number;
+};
+
+function isPromiseLike<T>(value: T | Promise<T>): value is Promise<T> {
+  return typeof value === "object" && value !== null && "then" in value;
+}
+
+export function isApprovalDecision(value: string): value is ExecApprovalDecision {
+  return value === "allow-once" || value === "allow-always" || value === "deny";
+}
+
+export function respondUnknownOrExpiredApproval(respond: RespondFn): void {
+  respond(
+    false,
+    undefined,
+    errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "unknown or expired approval id", {
+      details: APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS,
+    }),
+  );
+}
+
+function resolvePendingApprovalLookupError(params: {
+  resolvedId: ExecApprovalIdLookupResult;
+  exposeAmbiguousPrefixError?: boolean;
+}): PendingApprovalLookupError {
+  if (params.resolvedId.kind === "none") {
+    return "missing";
+  }
+  if (params.resolvedId.kind === "ambiguous" && !params.exposeAmbiguousPrefixError) {
+    return "missing";
+  }
+  return {
+    code: ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST,
+    message: "ambiguous approval id prefix; use the full id",
+  };
+}
+
+export function resolvePendingApprovalRecord<TPayload>(params: {
+  manager: ExecApprovalManager<TPayload>;
+  inputId: string;
+  exposeAmbiguousPrefixError?: boolean;
+}):
+  | {
+      ok: true;
+      approvalId: string;
+      snapshot: ExecApprovalRecord<TPayload>;
+    }
+  | {
+      ok: false;
+      response: PendingApprovalLookupError;
+    } {
+  const resolvedId = params.manager.lookupPendingId(params.inputId);
+  if (resolvedId.kind !== "exact" && resolvedId.kind !== "prefix") {
+    return {
+      ok: false,
+      response: resolvePendingApprovalLookupError({
+        resolvedId,
+        exposeAmbiguousPrefixError: params.exposeAmbiguousPrefixError,
+      }),
+    };
+  }
+  const snapshot = params.manager.getSnapshot(resolvedId.id);
+  if (!snapshot || snapshot.resolvedAtMs !== undefined) {
+    return { ok: false, response: "missing" };
+  }
+  return { ok: true, approvalId: resolvedId.id, snapshot };
+}
+
+export function respondPendingApprovalLookupError(params: {
+  respond: RespondFn;
+  response: PendingApprovalLookupError;
+}): void {
+  if (params.response === "missing") {
+    respondUnknownOrExpiredApproval(params.respond);
+    return;
+  }
+  params.respond(false, undefined, errorShape(params.response.code, params.response.message));
+}
+
+export async function handleApprovalWaitDecision<TPayload>(params: {
+  manager: ExecApprovalManager<TPayload>;
+  inputId: unknown;
+  respond: RespondFn;
+}): Promise<void> {
+  const id = typeof params.inputId === "string" ? params.inputId.trim() : "";
+  if (!id) {
+    params.respond(false, undefined, errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "id is required"));
+    return;
+  }
+  const decisionPromise = params.manager.awaitDecision(id);
+  if (!decisionPromise) {
+    params.respond(
+      false,
+      undefined,
+      errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "approval expired or not found"),
+    );
+    return;
+  }
+  const snapshot = params.manager.getSnapshot(id);
+  const decision = await decisionPromise;
+  params.respond(
+    true,
+    {
+      id,
+      decision,
+      createdAtMs: snapshot?.createdAtMs,
+      expiresAtMs: snapshot?.expiresAtMs,
+    },
+    undefined,
+  );
+}
+
+export async function handlePendingApprovalRequest<
+  TPayload extends ApprovalTurnSourceFields,
+>(params: {
+  manager: ExecApprovalManager<TPayload>;
+  record: ExecApprovalRecord<TPayload>;
+  decisionPromise: Promise<ExecApprovalDecision | null>;
+  respond: RespondFn;
+  context: GatewayRequestContext;
+  clientConnId?: string;
+  requestEventName: string;
+  requestEvent: RequestedApprovalEvent<TPayload>;
+  twoPhase: boolean;
+  deliverRequest: () => boolean | Promise<boolean>;
+  afterDecision?: (
+    decision: ExecApprovalDecision | null,
+    requestEvent: RequestedApprovalEvent<TPayload>,
+  ) => Promise<void> | void;
+  afterDecisionErrorLabel?: string;
+}): Promise<void> {
+  params.context.broadcast(params.requestEventName, params.requestEvent, { dropIfSlow: true });
+
+  const hasApprovalClients = params.context.hasExecApprovalClients?.(params.clientConnId) ?? false;
+  const hasTurnSourceRoute = hasApprovalTurnSourceRoute({
+    turnSourceChannel: params.record.request.turnSourceChannel,
+    turnSourceAccountId: params.record.request.turnSourceAccountId,
+  });
+  const deliveredResult = params.deliverRequest();
+  const delivered = isPromiseLike(deliveredResult) ? await deliveredResult : deliveredResult;
+
+  if (!hasApprovalClients && !hasTurnSourceRoute && !delivered) {
+    params.manager.expire(params.record.id, "no-approval-route");
+    params.respond(
+      true,
+      {
+        id: params.record.id,
+        decision: null,
+        createdAtMs: params.record.createdAtMs,
+        expiresAtMs: params.record.expiresAtMs,
+      },
+      undefined,
+    );
+    return;
+  }
+
+  if (params.twoPhase) {
+    params.respond(
+      true,
+      {
+        status: "accepted",
+        id: params.record.id,
+        createdAtMs: params.record.createdAtMs,
+        expiresAtMs: params.record.expiresAtMs,
+      },
+      undefined,
+    );
+  }
+
+  const decision = await params.decisionPromise;
+  if (params.afterDecision) {
+    try {
+      await params.afterDecision(decision, params.requestEvent);
+    } catch (err) {
+      params.context.logGateway?.error?.(
+        `${params.afterDecisionErrorLabel ?? "approval follow-up failed"}: ${String(err)}`,
+      );
+    }
+  }
+  params.respond(
+    true,
+    {
+      id: params.record.id,
+      decision,
+      createdAtMs: params.record.createdAtMs,
+      expiresAtMs: params.record.expiresAtMs,
+    },
+    undefined,
+  );
+}
+
+export async function handleApprovalResolve<TPayload, TResolvedEvent extends object>(params: {
+  manager: ExecApprovalManager<TPayload>;
+  inputId: string;
+  decision: ExecApprovalDecision;
+  respond: RespondFn;
+  context: GatewayRequestContext;
+  client: GatewayClient | null;
+  exposeAmbiguousPrefixError?: boolean;
+  validateDecision?: (snapshot: ExecApprovalRecord<TPayload>) =>
+    | {
+        message: string;
+        details?: Record<string, unknown>;
+      }
+    | null
+    | undefined;
+  resolvedEventName: string;
+  buildResolvedEvent: (params: {
+    approvalId: string;
+    decision: ExecApprovalDecision;
+    resolvedBy: string | null;
+    snapshot: ExecApprovalRecord<TPayload>;
+    nowMs: number;
+  }) => TResolvedEvent;
+  forwardResolved?: (event: TResolvedEvent) => Promise<void> | void;
+  forwardResolvedErrorLabel?: string;
+  extraResolvedHandlers?: Array<{
+    run: (event: TResolvedEvent) => Promise<void> | void;
+    errorLabel: string;
+  }>;
+}): Promise<void> {
+  const resolved = resolvePendingApprovalRecord({
+    manager: params.manager,
+    inputId: params.inputId,
+    exposeAmbiguousPrefixError: params.exposeAmbiguousPrefixError,
+  });
+  if (!resolved.ok) {
+    respondPendingApprovalLookupError({ respond: params.respond, response: resolved.response });
+    return;
+  }
+
+  const validationError = params.validateDecision?.(resolved.snapshot);
+  if (validationError) {
+    params.respond(
+      false,
+      undefined,
+      errorShape(
+        ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST,
+        validationError.message,
+        validationError.details ? { details: validationError.details } : undefined,
+      ),
+    );
+    return;
+  }
+
+  const resolvedBy =
+    params.client?.connect?.client?.displayName ?? params.client?.connect?.client?.id ?? null;
+  const ok = params.manager.resolve(resolved.approvalId, params.decision, resolvedBy);
+  if (!ok) {
+    respondUnknownOrExpiredApproval(params.respond);
+    return;
+  }
+
+  const resolvedEvent = params.buildResolvedEvent({
+    approvalId: resolved.approvalId,
+    decision: params.decision,
+    resolvedBy,
+    snapshot: resolved.snapshot,
+    nowMs: Date.now(),
+  });
+  params.context.broadcast(params.resolvedEventName, resolvedEvent, { dropIfSlow: true });
+
+  const followUps = [
+    params.forwardResolved
+      ? {
+          run: params.forwardResolved,
+          errorLabel: params.forwardResolvedErrorLabel ?? "approval resolve follow-up failed",
+        }
+      : null,
+    ...(params.extraResolvedHandlers ?? []),
+  ].filter(
+    (
+      entry,
+    ): entry is { run: (event: TResolvedEvent) => Promise<void> | void; errorLabel: string } =>
+      Boolean(entry),
+  );
+
+  for (const followUp of followUps) {
+    try {
+      await followUp.run(resolvedEvent);
+    } catch (err) {
+      params.context.logGateway?.error?.(`${followUp.errorLabel}: ${String(err)}`);
+    }
+  }
+
+  params.respond(true, { ok: true }, undefined);
+}
diff --git a/src/gateway/server-methods/exec-approval.ts b/src/gateway/server-methods/exec-approval.ts
index 104375399fd..ea0943d1fe7 100644
--- a/src/gateway/server-methods/exec-approval.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/server-methods/exec-approval.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-import { hasApprovalTurnSourceRoute } from "../../infra/approval-turn-source.js";
 import {
   resolveExecApprovalCommandDisplay,
   sanitizeExecApprovalDisplayText,
@@ -8,7 +7,6 @@ import {
   DEFAULT_EXEC_APPROVAL_TIMEOUT_MS,
   resolveExecApprovalAllowedDecisions,
   resolveExecApprovalRequestAllowedDecisions,
-  type ExecApprovalDecision,
   type ExecApprovalRequest,
   type ExecApprovalResolved,
 } from "../../infra/exec-approvals.js";
@@ -26,12 +24,16 @@ import {
   validateExecApprovalRequestParams,
   validateExecApprovalResolveParams,
 } from "../protocol/index.js";
+import {
+  handleApprovalWaitDecision,
+  handlePendingApprovalRequest,
+  handleApprovalResolve,
+  isApprovalDecision,
+  respondPendingApprovalLookupError,
+  resolvePendingApprovalRecord,
+} from "./approval-shared.js";
 import type { GatewayRequestHandlers } from "./types.js";
 
-const APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS = {
-  reason: ErrorCodes.APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND,
-} as const;
-
 const APPROVAL_ALLOW_ALWAYS_UNAVAILABLE_DETAILS = {
   reason: "APPROVAL_ALLOW_ALWAYS_UNAVAILABLE",
 } as const;
@@ -42,27 +44,6 @@ type ExecApprovalIosPushDelivery = {
   handleExpired?: (request: ExecApprovalRequest) => Promise<void>;
 };
 
-function resolvePendingApprovalRecord(manager: ExecApprovalManager, inputId: string) {
-  const resolvedId = manager.lookupPendingId(inputId);
-  if (resolvedId.kind === "none") {
-    return { ok: false as const, response: "missing" as const };
-  }
-  if (resolvedId.kind === "ambiguous") {
-    return {
-      ok: false as const,
-      response: {
-        code: ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST,
-        message: "ambiguous approval id prefix; use the full id",
-      },
-    };
-  }
-  const snapshot = manager.getSnapshot(resolvedId.id);
-  if (!snapshot || snapshot.resolvedAtMs !== undefined) {
-    return { ok: false as const, response: "missing" as const };
-  }
-  return { ok: true as const, approvalId: resolvedId.id, snapshot };
-}
-
 export function createExecApprovalHandlers(
   manager: ExecApprovalManager,
   opts?: { forwarder?: ExecApprovalForwarder; iosPushDelivery?: ExecApprovalIosPushDelivery },
@@ -83,19 +64,13 @@ export function createExecApprovalHandlers(
         return;
       }
       const p = params as { id: string };
-      const resolved = resolvePendingApprovalRecord(manager, p.id);
+      const resolved = resolvePendingApprovalRecord({
+        manager,
+        inputId: p.id,
+        exposeAmbiguousPrefixError: true,
+      });
       if (!resolved.ok) {
-        if (resolved.response === "missing") {
-          respond(
-            false,
-            undefined,
-            errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "unknown or expired approval id", {
-              details: APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS,
-            }),
-          );
-          return;
-        }
-        respond(false, undefined, errorShape(resolved.response.code, resolved.response.message));
+        respondPendingApprovalLookupError({ respond, response: resolved.response });
         return;
       }
       const { commandText, commandPreview } = resolveExecApprovalCommandDisplay(
@@ -272,107 +247,63 @@ export function createExecApprovalHandlers(
         createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
         expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
       };
-      context.broadcast("exec.approval.requested", requestEvent, { dropIfSlow: true });
-      const hasExecApprovalClients = context.hasExecApprovalClients?.(client?.connId) ?? false;
-      const hasTurnSourceRoute = hasApprovalTurnSourceRoute({
-        turnSourceChannel: record.request.turnSourceChannel,
-        turnSourceAccountId: record.request.turnSourceAccountId,
-      });
-      let forwarded = false;
-      if (opts?.forwarder) {
-        try {
-          forwarded = await opts.forwarder.handleRequested(requestEvent);
-        } catch (err) {
-          context.logGateway?.error?.(`exec approvals: forward request failed: ${String(err)}`);
-        }
-      }
-      let deliveredToIosPush = false;
-      if (opts?.iosPushDelivery?.handleRequested) {
-        try {
-          deliveredToIosPush = await opts.iosPushDelivery.handleRequested(requestEvent);
-        } catch (err) {
-          context.logGateway?.error?.(`exec approvals: iOS push request failed: ${String(err)}`);
-        }
-      }
-
-      if (!hasExecApprovalClients && !forwarded && !hasTurnSourceRoute && !deliveredToIosPush) {
-        manager.expire(record.id, "no-approval-route");
-        respond(
-          true,
-          {
-            id: record.id,
-            decision: null,
-            createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
-            expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
-          },
-          undefined,
-        );
-        return;
-      }
-
-      // Only send immediate "accepted" response when twoPhase is requested.
-      // This preserves single-response semantics for existing callers.
-      if (twoPhase) {
-        respond(
-          true,
-          {
-            status: "accepted",
-            id: record.id,
-            createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
-            expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
-          },
-          undefined,
-        );
-      }
-
-      const decision = await decisionPromise;
-      if (decision === null) {
-        void opts?.iosPushDelivery?.handleExpired?.(requestEvent).catch((err) => {
-          context.logGateway?.error?.(`exec approvals: iOS push expire failed: ${String(err)}`);
-        });
-      }
-      // Send final response with decision for callers using expectFinal:true.
-      respond(
-        true,
-        {
-          id: record.id,
-          decision,
-          createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
-          expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
+      await handlePendingApprovalRequest({
+        manager,
+        record,
+        decisionPromise,
+        respond,
+        context,
+        clientConnId: client?.connId,
+        requestEventName: "exec.approval.requested",
+        requestEvent,
+        twoPhase,
+        deliverRequest: () => {
+          const deliveryTasks: Array<Promise<boolean>> = [];
+          if (opts?.forwarder) {
+            deliveryTasks.push(
+              opts.forwarder.handleRequested(requestEvent).catch((err) => {
+                context.logGateway?.error?.(
+                  `exec approvals: forward request failed: ${String(err)}`,
+                );
+                return false;
+              }),
+            );
+          }
+          if (opts?.iosPushDelivery?.handleRequested) {
+            deliveryTasks.push(
+              opts.iosPushDelivery.handleRequested(requestEvent).catch((err) => {
+                context.logGateway?.error?.(
+                  `exec approvals: iOS push request failed: ${String(err)}`,
+                );
+                return false;
+              }),
+            );
+          }
+          if (deliveryTasks.length === 0) {
+            return false;
+          }
+          return (async () => {
+            let delivered = false;
+            for (const task of deliveryTasks) {
+              delivered = (await task) || delivered;
+            }
+            return delivered;
+          })();
         },
-        undefined,
-      );
+        afterDecision: async (decision) => {
+          if (decision === null) {
+            await opts?.iosPushDelivery?.handleExpired?.(requestEvent);
+          }
+        },
+        afterDecisionErrorLabel: "exec approvals: iOS push expire failed",
+      });
     },
     "exec.approval.waitDecision": async ({ params, respond }) => {
-      const p = params as { id?: string };
-      const id = typeof p.id === "string" ? p.id.trim() : "";
-      if (!id) {
-        respond(false, undefined, errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "id is required"));
-        return;
-      }
-      const decisionPromise = manager.awaitDecision(id);
-      if (!decisionPromise) {
-        respond(
-          false,
-          undefined,
-          errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "approval expired or not found"),
-        );
-        return;
-      }
-      // Capture snapshot before await (entry may be deleted after grace period)
-      const snapshot = manager.getSnapshot(id);
-      const decision = await decisionPromise;
-      // Return decision (can be null on timeout) - let clients handle via askFallback
-      respond(
-        true,
-        {
-          id,
-          decision,
-          createdAtMs: snapshot?.createdAtMs,
-          expiresAtMs: snapshot?.expiresAtMs,
-        },
-        undefined,
-      );
+      await handleApprovalWaitDecision({
+        manager,
+        inputId: (params as { id?: string }).id,
+        respond,
+      });
     },
     "exec.approval.resolve": async ({ params, respond, client, context }) => {
       if (!validateExecApprovalResolveParams(params)) {
@@ -389,70 +320,48 @@ export function createExecApprovalHandlers(
         return;
       }
       const p = params as { id: string; decision: string };
-      const decision = p.decision as ExecApprovalDecision;
-      if (decision !== "allow-once" && decision !== "allow-always" && decision !== "deny") {
+      if (!isApprovalDecision(p.decision)) {
         respond(false, undefined, errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "invalid decision"));
         return;
       }
-      const resolved = resolvePendingApprovalRecord(manager, p.id);
-      if (!resolved.ok) {
-        if (resolved.response === "missing") {
-          respond(
-            false,
-            undefined,
-            errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "unknown or expired approval id", {
-              details: APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS,
-            }),
-          );
-          return;
-        }
-        respond(false, undefined, errorShape(resolved.response.code, resolved.response.message));
-        return;
-      }
-      const approvalId = resolved.approvalId;
-      const snapshot = resolved.snapshot;
-      const allowedDecisions = resolveExecApprovalRequestAllowedDecisions(snapshot?.request);
-      if (snapshot && !allowedDecisions.includes(decision)) {
-        respond(
-          false,
-          undefined,
-          errorShape(
-            ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST,
-            "allow-always is unavailable because the effective policy requires approval every time",
-            {
-              details: APPROVAL_ALLOW_ALWAYS_UNAVAILABLE_DETAILS,
-            },
-          ),
-        );
-        return;
-      }
-      const resolvedBy = client?.connect?.client?.displayName ?? client?.connect?.client?.id;
-      const ok = manager.resolve(approvalId, decision, resolvedBy ?? null);
-      if (!ok) {
-        respond(
-          false,
-          undefined,
-          errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "unknown or expired approval id", {
-            details: APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS,
-          }),
-        );
-        return;
-      }
-      const resolvedEvent: ExecApprovalResolved = {
-        id: approvalId,
-        decision,
-        resolvedBy,
-        ts: Date.now(),
-        request: snapshot?.request,
-      };
-      context.broadcast("exec.approval.resolved", resolvedEvent, { dropIfSlow: true });
-      void opts?.forwarder?.handleResolved(resolvedEvent).catch((err) => {
-        context.logGateway?.error?.(`exec approvals: forward resolve failed: ${String(err)}`);
+      await handleApprovalResolve({
+        manager,
+        inputId: p.id,
+        decision: p.decision,
+        respond,
+        context,
+        client,
+        exposeAmbiguousPrefixError: true,
+        validateDecision: (snapshot) => {
+          const allowedDecisions = resolveExecApprovalRequestAllowedDecisions(snapshot.request);
+          return allowedDecisions.includes(p.decision)
+            ? null
+            : {
+                message:
+                  "allow-always is unavailable because the effective policy requires approval every time",
+                details: APPROVAL_ALLOW_ALWAYS_UNAVAILABLE_DETAILS,
+              };
+        },
+        resolvedEventName: "exec.approval.resolved",
+        buildResolvedEvent: ({ approvalId, decision, resolvedBy, snapshot, nowMs }) =>
+          ({
+            id: approvalId,
+            decision,
+            resolvedBy,
+            ts: nowMs,
+            request: snapshot.request,
+          }) satisfies ExecApprovalResolved,
+        forwardResolved: (resolvedEvent) => opts?.forwarder?.handleResolved(resolvedEvent),
+        forwardResolvedErrorLabel: "exec approvals: forward resolve failed",
+        extraResolvedHandlers: opts?.iosPushDelivery?.handleResolved
+          ? [
+              {
+                run: (resolvedEvent) => opts.iosPushDelivery!.handleResolved!(resolvedEvent),
+                errorLabel: "exec approvals: iOS push resolve failed",
+              },
+            ]
+          : undefined,
       });
-      void opts?.iosPushDelivery?.handleResolved?.(resolvedEvent).catch((err) => {
-        context.logGateway?.error?.(`exec approvals: iOS push resolve failed: ${String(err)}`);
-      });
-      respond(true, { ok: true }, undefined);
     },
   };
 }
diff --git a/src/gateway/server-methods/plugin-approval.ts b/src/gateway/server-methods/plugin-approval.ts
index d3437e4f437..28e8e3c4bd4 100644
--- a/src/gateway/server-methods/plugin-approval.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/server-methods/plugin-approval.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 import { randomUUID } from "node:crypto";
-import { hasApprovalTurnSourceRoute } from "../../infra/approval-turn-source.js";
 import type { ExecApprovalForwarder } from "../../infra/exec-approval-forwarder.js";
 import type { ExecApprovalDecision } from "../../infra/exec-approvals.js";
 import type { PluginApprovalRequestPayload } from "../../infra/plugin-approvals.js";
@@ -15,12 +14,14 @@ import {
   validatePluginApprovalRequestParams,
   validatePluginApprovalResolveParams,
 } from "../protocol/index.js";
+import {
+  handleApprovalResolve,
+  handleApprovalWaitDecision,
+  handlePendingApprovalRequest,
+  isApprovalDecision,
+} from "./approval-shared.js";
 import type { GatewayRequestHandlers } from "./types.js";
 
-const APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS = {
-  reason: ErrorCodes.APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND,
-} as const;
-
 export function createPluginApprovalHandlers(
   manager: ExecApprovalManager<PluginApprovalRequestPayload>,
   opts?: { forwarder?: ExecApprovalForwarder },
@@ -96,105 +97,41 @@ export function createPluginApprovalHandlers(
         return;
       }
 
-      context.broadcast(
-        "plugin.approval.requested",
-        {
-          id: record.id,
-          request: record.request,
-          createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
-          expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
-        },
-        { dropIfSlow: true },
-      );
+      const requestEvent = {
+        id: record.id,
+        request: record.request,
+        createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
+        expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
+      };
 
-      let forwarded = false;
-      if (opts?.forwarder?.handlePluginApprovalRequested) {
-        try {
-          forwarded = await opts.forwarder.handlePluginApprovalRequested({
-            id: record.id,
-            request: record.request,
-            createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
-            expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
+      await handlePendingApprovalRequest({
+        manager,
+        record,
+        decisionPromise,
+        respond,
+        context,
+        clientConnId: client?.connId,
+        requestEventName: "plugin.approval.requested",
+        requestEvent,
+        twoPhase,
+        deliverRequest: () => {
+          if (!opts?.forwarder?.handlePluginApprovalRequested) {
+            return false;
+          }
+          return opts.forwarder.handlePluginApprovalRequested(requestEvent).catch((err) => {
+            context.logGateway?.error?.(`plugin approvals: forward request failed: ${String(err)}`);
+            return false;
           });
-        } catch (err) {
-          context.logGateway?.error?.(`plugin approvals: forward request failed: ${String(err)}`);
-        }
-      }
-
-      const hasApprovalClients = context.hasExecApprovalClients?.(client?.connId) ?? false;
-      const hasTurnSourceRoute = hasApprovalTurnSourceRoute({
-        turnSourceChannel: record.request.turnSourceChannel,
-        turnSourceAccountId: record.request.turnSourceAccountId,
-      });
-      if (!hasApprovalClients && !forwarded && !hasTurnSourceRoute) {
-        manager.expire(record.id, "no-approval-route");
-        respond(
-          true,
-          {
-            id: record.id,
-            decision: null,
-            createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
-            expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
-          },
-          undefined,
-        );
-        return;
-      }
-
-      if (twoPhase) {
-        respond(
-          true,
-          {
-            status: "accepted",
-            id: record.id,
-            createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
-            expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
-          },
-          undefined,
-        );
-      }
-
-      const decision = await decisionPromise;
-      respond(
-        true,
-        {
-          id: record.id,
-          decision,
-          createdAtMs: record.createdAtMs,
-          expiresAtMs: record.expiresAtMs,
         },
-        undefined,
-      );
+      });
     },
 
     "plugin.approval.waitDecision": async ({ params, respond }) => {
-      const p = params as { id?: string };
-      const id = typeof p.id === "string" ? p.id.trim() : "";
-      if (!id) {
-        respond(false, undefined, errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "id is required"));
-        return;
-      }
-      const decisionPromise = manager.awaitDecision(id);
-      if (!decisionPromise) {
-        respond(
-          false,
-          undefined,
-          errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "approval expired or not found"),
-        );
-        return;
-      }
-      const snapshot = manager.getSnapshot(id);
-      const decision = await decisionPromise;
-      respond(
-        true,
-        {
-          id,
-          decision,
-          createdAtMs: snapshot?.createdAtMs,
-          expiresAtMs: snapshot?.expiresAtMs,
-        },
-        undefined,
-      );
+      await handleApprovalWaitDecision({
+        manager,
+        inputId: (params as { id?: string }).id,
+        respond,
+      });
     },
 
     "plugin.approval.resolve": async ({ params, respond, client, context }) => {
@@ -212,63 +149,30 @@ export function createPluginApprovalHandlers(
         return;
       }
       const p = params as { id: string; decision: string };
-      const decision = p.decision as ExecApprovalDecision;
-      if (decision !== "allow-once" && decision !== "allow-always" && decision !== "deny") {
+      if (!isApprovalDecision(p.decision)) {
         respond(false, undefined, errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "invalid decision"));
         return;
       }
-      const resolvedId = manager.lookupPendingId(p.id);
-      if (resolvedId.kind === "none" || resolvedId.kind === "ambiguous") {
-        respond(
-          false,
-          undefined,
-          errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "unknown or expired approval id", {
-            details: APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS,
-          }),
-        );
-        return;
-      }
-      const approvalId = resolvedId.id;
-      const snapshot = manager.getSnapshot(approvalId);
-      if (!snapshot || snapshot.resolvedAtMs !== undefined) {
-        respond(
-          false,
-          undefined,
-          errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "unknown or expired approval id", {
-            details: APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS,
-          }),
-        );
-        return;
-      }
-      const resolvedBy = client?.connect?.client?.displayName ?? client?.connect?.client?.id;
-      const ok = manager.resolve(approvalId, decision, resolvedBy ?? null);
-      if (!ok) {
-        respond(
-          false,
-          undefined,
-          errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, "unknown or expired approval id", {
-            details: APPROVAL_NOT_FOUND_DETAILS,
-          }),
-        );
-        return;
-      }
-      context.broadcast(
-        "plugin.approval.resolved",
-        { id: approvalId, decision, resolvedBy, ts: Date.now(), request: snapshot?.request },
-        { dropIfSlow: true },
-      );
-      void opts?.forwarder
-        ?.handlePluginApprovalResolved?.({
+      await handleApprovalResolve({
+        manager,
+        inputId: p.id,
+        decision: p.decision,
+        respond,
+        context,
+        client,
+        exposeAmbiguousPrefixError: false,
+        resolvedEventName: "plugin.approval.resolved",
+        buildResolvedEvent: ({ approvalId, decision, resolvedBy, snapshot, nowMs }) => ({
           id: approvalId,
           decision,
           resolvedBy,
-          ts: Date.now(),
-          request: snapshot?.request,
-        })
-        .catch((err) => {
-          context.logGateway?.error?.(`plugin approvals: forward resolve failed: ${String(err)}`);
-        });
-      respond(true, { ok: true }, undefined);
+          ts: nowMs,
+          request: snapshot.request,
+        }),
+        forwardResolved: (resolvedEvent) =>
+          opts?.forwarder?.handlePluginApprovalResolved?.(resolvedEvent),
+        forwardResolvedErrorLabel: "plugin approvals: forward resolve failed",
+      });
     },
   };
 }
diff --git a/src/gateway/server-methods/send.test.ts b/src/gateway/server-methods/send.test.ts
index 19b4d2c9319..4e7f1528fd0 100644
--- a/src/gateway/server-methods/send.test.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/server-methods/send.test.ts
@@ -414,6 +414,39 @@ describe("gateway send mirroring", () => {
     );
   });
 
+  it("includes optional poll delivery identifiers in the gateway payload", async () => {
+    mocks.sendPoll.mockResolvedValue({
+      messageId: "poll-rich",
+      channelId: "C123",
+      conversationId: "conv-1",
+      toJid: "jid-1",
+      pollId: "poll-meta-1",
+    });
+
+    const { respond } = await runPoll({
+      to: "channel:C1",
+      question: "Q?",
+      options: ["A", "B"],
+      channel: "slack",
+      idempotencyKey: "idem-poll-rich",
+    });
+
+    expect(respond).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+      true,
+      expect.objectContaining({
+        runId: "idem-poll-rich",
+        messageId: "poll-rich",
+        channel: "slack",
+        channelId: "C123",
+        conversationId: "conv-1",
+        toJid: "jid-1",
+        pollId: "poll-meta-1",
+      }),
+      undefined,
+      expect.objectContaining({ channel: "slack" }),
+    );
+  });
+
   it("auto-picks the single configured channel for poll", async () => {
     const { respond } = await runPoll({
       to: "x",
diff --git a/src/gateway/server-methods/send.ts b/src/gateway/server-methods/send.ts
index 00167b9da24..495dc9bb714 100644
--- a/src/gateway/server-methods/send.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/server-methods/send.ts
@@ -92,6 +92,88 @@ async function resolveRequestedChannel(params: {
   return { cfg, channel };
 }
 
+function resolveGatewayOutboundTarget(params: {
+  channel: string;
+  to: string;
+  cfg: ReturnType<typeof loadConfig>;
+  accountId?: string;
+}):
+  | {
+      ok: true;
+      to: string;
+    }
+  | {
+      ok: false;
+      error: ReturnType<typeof errorShape>;
+    } {
+  const resolved = resolveOutboundTarget({
+    channel: params.channel,
+    to: params.to,
+    cfg: params.cfg,
+    accountId: params.accountId,
+    mode: "explicit",
+  });
+  if (!resolved.ok) {
+    return {
+      ok: false,
+      error: errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, String(resolved.error)),
+    };
+  }
+  return { ok: true, to: resolved.to };
+}
+
+function buildGatewayDeliveryPayload(params: {
+  runId: string;
+  channel: string;
+  result: Record<string, unknown>;
+}): Record<string, unknown> {
+  const payload: Record<string, unknown> = {
+    runId: params.runId,
+    messageId: params.result.messageId,
+    channel: params.channel,
+  };
+  if ("chatId" in params.result) {
+    payload.chatId = params.result.chatId;
+  }
+  if ("channelId" in params.result) {
+    payload.channelId = params.result.channelId;
+  }
+  if ("toJid" in params.result) {
+    payload.toJid = params.result.toJid;
+  }
+  if ("conversationId" in params.result) {
+    payload.conversationId = params.result.conversationId;
+  }
+  if ("pollId" in params.result) {
+    payload.pollId = params.result.pollId;
+  }
+  return payload;
+}
+
+function cacheGatewayDedupeSuccess(params: {
+  context: GatewayRequestContext;
+  dedupeKey: string;
+  payload: Record<string, unknown>;
+}) {
+  params.context.dedupe.set(params.dedupeKey, {
+    ts: Date.now(),
+    ok: true,
+    payload: params.payload,
+  });
+}
+
+function cacheGatewayDedupeFailure(params: {
+  context: GatewayRequestContext;
+  dedupeKey: string;
+  error: ReturnType<typeof errorShape>;
+}) {
+  params.context.dedupe.set(params.dedupeKey, {
+    ts: Date.now(),
+    ok: false,
+    error: params.error,
+  });
+}
+
 export const sendHandlers: GatewayRequestHandlers = {
   send: async ({ params, respond, context, client }) => {
     const p = params;
@@ -186,27 +268,26 @@ export const sendHandlers: GatewayRequestHandlers = {
 
     const work = (async (): Promise<InflightResult> => {
       try {
-        const resolved = resolveOutboundTarget({
+        const resolvedTarget = resolveGatewayOutboundTarget({
           channel: outboundChannel,
           to,
           cfg,
           accountId,
-          mode: "explicit",
         });
-        if (!resolved.ok) {
+        if (!resolvedTarget.ok) {
           return {
             ok: false,
-            error: errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, String(resolved.error)),
+            error: resolvedTarget.error,
             meta: { channel },
           };
         }
         const idLikeTarget = await maybeResolveIdLikeTarget({
           cfg,
           channel,
-          input: resolved.to,
+          input: resolvedTarget.to,
           accountId,
         });
-        const deliveryTarget = idLikeTarget?.to ?? resolved.to;
+        const deliveryTarget = idLikeTarget?.to ?? resolvedTarget.to;
         const outboundDeps = context.deps ? createOutboundSendDeps(context.deps) : undefined;
         const mirrorPayloads = normalizeReplyPayloadsForDelivery([
           { text: message, mediaUrl, mediaUrls },
@@ -290,28 +371,8 @@ export const sendHandlers: GatewayRequestHandlers = {
         if (!result) {
           throw new Error("No delivery result");
         }
-        const payload: Record<string, unknown> = {
-          runId: idem,
-          messageId: result.messageId,
-          channel,
-        };
-        if ("chatId" in result) {
-          payload.chatId = result.chatId;
-        }
-        if ("channelId" in result) {
-          payload.channelId = result.channelId;
-        }
-        if ("toJid" in result) {
-          payload.toJid = result.toJid;
-        }
-        if ("conversationId" in result) {
-          payload.conversationId = result.conversationId;
-        }
-        context.dedupe.set(dedupeKey, {
-          ts: Date.now(),
-          ok: true,
-          payload,
-        });
+        const payload = buildGatewayDeliveryPayload({ runId: idem, channel, result });
+        cacheGatewayDedupeSuccess({ context, dedupeKey, payload });
         return {
           ok: true,
           payload,
@@ -319,11 +380,7 @@ export const sendHandlers: GatewayRequestHandlers = {
         };
       } catch (err) {
         const error = errorShape(ErrorCodes.UNAVAILABLE, String(err));
-        context.dedupe.set(dedupeKey, {
-          ts: Date.now(),
-          ok: false,
-          error,
-        });
+        cacheGatewayDedupeFailure({ context, dedupeKey, error });
         return { ok: false, error, meta: { channel, error: formatForLog(err) } };
       }
     })();
@@ -429,15 +486,14 @@ export const sendHandlers: GatewayRequestHandlers = {
         );
         return;
       }
-      const resolved = resolveOutboundTarget({
+      const resolvedTarget = resolveGatewayOutboundTarget({
         channel: channel,
         to,
         cfg,
         accountId,
-        mode: "explicit",
       });
-      if (!resolved.ok) {
-        respond(false, undefined, errorShape(ErrorCodes.INVALID_REQUEST, String(resolved.error)));
+      if (!resolvedTarget.ok) {
+        respond(false, undefined, resolvedTarget.error);
         return;
       }
       const normalized = outbound.pollMaxOptions
@@ -445,7 +501,7 @@ export const sendHandlers: GatewayRequestHandlers = {
         : normalizePollInput(poll);
       const result = await outbound.sendPoll({
         cfg,
-        to: resolved.to,
+        to: resolvedTarget.to,
         poll: normalized,
         accountId,
         threadId,
@@ -453,34 +509,18 @@ export const sendHandlers: GatewayRequestHandlers = {
         isAnonymous: request.isAnonymous,
         gatewayClientScopes: client?.connect?.scopes ?? [],
       });
-      const payload: Record<string, unknown> = {
-        runId: idem,
-        messageId: result.messageId,
-        channel,
-      };
-      if (result.toJid) {
-        payload.toJid = result.toJid;
-      }
-      if (result.channelId) {
-        payload.channelId = result.channelId;
-      }
-      if (result.conversationId) {
-        payload.conversationId = result.conversationId;
-      }
-      if (result.pollId) {
-        payload.pollId = result.pollId;
-      }
-      context.dedupe.set(`poll:${idem}`, {
-        ts: Date.now(),
-        ok: true,
+      const payload = buildGatewayDeliveryPayload({ runId: idem, channel, result });
+      cacheGatewayDedupeSuccess({
+        context,
+        dedupeKey: `poll:${idem}`,
         payload,
       });
       respond(true, payload, undefined, { channel });
     } catch (err) {
       const error = errorShape(ErrorCodes.UNAVAILABLE, String(err));
-      context.dedupe.set(`poll:${idem}`, {
-        ts: Date.now(),
-        ok: false,
+      cacheGatewayDedupeFailure({
+        context,
+        dedupeKey: `poll:${idem}`,
         error,
       });
       respond(false, undefined, error, {
diff --git a/src/gateway/startup-auth.ts b/src/gateway/startup-auth.ts
index cbf2c19444c..eeabe2e3fe6 100644
--- a/src/gateway/startup-auth.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/startup-auth.ts
@@ -5,7 +5,11 @@ import type {
   OpenClawConfig,
 } from "../config/config.js";
 import { replaceConfigFile } from "../config/config.js";
-import { hasConfiguredSecretInput } from "../config/types.secrets.js";
+import {
+  hasConfiguredGatewayAuthSecretInput,
+  resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRefValue,
+  resolveGatewayTokenSecretRefValue,
+} from "./auth-config-utils.js";
 import { assertExplicitGatewayAuthModeWhenBothConfigured } from "./auth-mode-policy.js";
 import { resolveGatewayAuth, type ResolvedGatewayAuth } from "./auth.js";
 import {
@@ -13,7 +17,6 @@ import {
   hasGatewayTokenEnvCandidate,
   readGatewayTokenEnv,
 } from "./credentials.js";
-import { resolveRequiredConfiguredSecretRefInputString } from "./resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
 
 export function mergeGatewayAuthConfig(
   base?: GatewayAuthConfig,
@@ -111,7 +114,7 @@ function hasGatewayTokenCandidate(params: {
   ) {
     return true;
   }
-  return hasConfiguredSecretInput(params.cfg.gateway?.auth?.token, params.cfg.secrets?.defaults);
+  return hasConfiguredGatewayAuthSecretInput(params.cfg, "gateway.auth.token");
 }
 
 function hasGatewayTokenOverrideCandidate(params: { authOverride?: GatewayAuthConfig }): boolean {
@@ -133,88 +136,6 @@ function hasGatewayPasswordOverrideCandidate(params: {
   );
 }
 
-function shouldResolveGatewayTokenSecretRef(params: {
-  cfg: OpenClawConfig;
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
-  authOverride?: GatewayAuthConfig;
-}): boolean {
-  if (hasGatewayTokenOverrideCandidate({ authOverride: params.authOverride })) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  if (hasGatewayTokenEnvCandidate(params.env)) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  const explicitMode = params.authOverride?.mode ?? params.cfg.gateway?.auth?.mode;
-  if (explicitMode === "token") {
-    return true;
-  }
-  if (explicitMode === "password" || explicitMode === "none" || explicitMode === "trusted-proxy") {
-    return false;
-  }
-
-  if (hasGatewayPasswordOverrideCandidate(params)) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  return !hasConfiguredSecretInput(
-    params.cfg.gateway?.auth?.password,
-    params.cfg.secrets?.defaults,
-  );
-}
-
-async function resolveGatewayTokenSecretRef(
-  cfg: OpenClawConfig,
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv,
-  authOverride?: GatewayAuthConfig,
-): Promise<string | undefined> {
-  if (!shouldResolveGatewayTokenSecretRef({ cfg, env, authOverride })) {
-    return undefined;
-  }
-  return await resolveRequiredConfiguredSecretRefInputString({
-    config: cfg,
-    env,
-    value: cfg.gateway?.auth?.token,
-    path: "gateway.auth.token",
-  });
-}
-
-function shouldResolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(params: {
-  cfg: OpenClawConfig;
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
-  authOverride?: GatewayAuthConfig;
-}): boolean {
-  if (hasGatewayPasswordOverrideCandidate(params)) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  const explicitMode = params.authOverride?.mode ?? params.cfg.gateway?.auth?.mode;
-  if (explicitMode === "password") {
-    return true;
-  }
-  if (explicitMode === "token" || explicitMode === "none" || explicitMode === "trusted-proxy") {
-    return false;
-  }
-
-  if (hasGatewayTokenCandidate(params)) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  return true;
-}
-
-async function resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(
-  cfg: OpenClawConfig,
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv,
-  authOverride?: GatewayAuthConfig,
-): Promise<string | undefined> {
-  if (!shouldResolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef({ cfg, env, authOverride })) {
-    return undefined;
-  }
-  return await resolveRequiredConfiguredSecretRefInputString({
-    config: cfg,
-    env,
-    value: cfg.gateway?.auth?.password,
-    path: "gateway.auth.password",
-  });
-}
-
 export async function ensureGatewayStartupAuth(params: {
   cfg: OpenClawConfig;
   env?: NodeJS.ProcessEnv;
@@ -231,9 +152,33 @@ export async function ensureGatewayStartupAuth(params: {
   assertExplicitGatewayAuthModeWhenBothConfigured(params.cfg);
   const env = params.env ?? process.env;
   const persistRequested = params.persist === true;
+  const explicitMode = params.authOverride?.mode ?? params.cfg.gateway?.auth?.mode;
   const [resolvedTokenRefValue, resolvedPasswordRefValue] = await Promise.all([
-    resolveGatewayTokenSecretRef(params.cfg, env, params.authOverride),
-    resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(params.cfg, env, params.authOverride),
+    resolveGatewayTokenSecretRefValue({
+      cfg: params.cfg,
+      env,
+      mode: explicitMode,
+      hasTokenCandidate:
+        hasGatewayTokenOverrideCandidate({ authOverride: params.authOverride }) ||
+        hasGatewayTokenEnvCandidate(env),
+      hasPasswordCandidate:
+        hasGatewayPasswordOverrideCandidate({ env, authOverride: params.authOverride }) ||
+        hasConfiguredGatewayAuthSecretInput(params.cfg, "gateway.auth.password"),
+    }),
+    resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRefValue({
+      cfg: params.cfg,
+      env,
+      mode: explicitMode,
+      hasPasswordCandidate: hasGatewayPasswordOverrideCandidate({
+        env,
+        authOverride: params.authOverride,
+      }),
+      hasTokenCandidate: hasGatewayTokenCandidate({
+        cfg: params.cfg,
+        env,
+        authOverride: params.authOverride,
+      }),
+    }),
   ]);
   const authOverride: GatewayAuthConfig | undefined =
     params.authOverride || resolvedTokenRefValue || resolvedPasswordRefValue
diff --git a/src/infra/exec-approval-forwarder.ts b/src/infra/exec-approval-forwarder.ts
index fecee19a0b1..33b1222ec86 100644
--- a/src/infra/exec-approval-forwarder.ts
+++ b/src/infra/exec-approval-forwarder.ts
@@ -104,6 +104,15 @@ type ApprovalStrategy<
   ) => ReplyPayload;
 };
 
+type ApprovalRouteRequestFields = {
+  agentId?: string | null;
+  sessionKey?: string | null;
+  turnSourceChannel?: string | null;
+  turnSourceTo?: string | null;
+  turnSourceAccountId?: string | null;
+  turnSourceThreadId?: string | number | null;
+};
+
 export type ExecApprovalForwarder = {
   handleRequested: (request: ExecApprovalRequest) => Promise<boolean>;
   handleResolved: (resolved: ExecApprovalResolved) => Promise<void>;
@@ -278,6 +287,22 @@ function normalizeTurnSourceChannel(value?: string | null): DeliverableMessageCh
   return normalized && isDeliverableMessageChannel(normalized) ? normalized : undefined;
 }
 
+function extractApprovalRouteRequest(
+  request: ApprovalRouteRequestFields | null | undefined,
+): ApprovalRouteRequest | null {
+  if (!request) {
+    return null;
+  }
+  return {
+    agentId: request.agentId ?? null,
+    sessionKey: request.sessionKey ?? null,
+    turnSourceChannel: request.turnSourceChannel ?? null,
+    turnSourceTo: request.turnSourceTo ?? null,
+    turnSourceAccountId: request.turnSourceAccountId ?? null,
+    turnSourceThreadId: request.turnSourceThreadId ?? null,
+  };
+}
+
 function defaultResolveSessionTarget(params: {
   cfg: OpenClawConfig;
   request: ExecApprovalRequest;
@@ -341,33 +366,42 @@ async function deliverToTargets(params: {
   await Promise.allSettled(deliveries);
 }
 
+function buildApprovalRenderPayload<TParams>(params: {
+  target: ForwardTarget;
+  renderParams: TParams;
+  resolveRenderer: (
+    adapter: ReturnType<typeof resolveChannelApprovalAdapter> | undefined,
+  ) => ((params: TParams) => ReplyPayload | null) | undefined;
+  buildFallback: () => ReplyPayload;
+}): ReplyPayload {
+  const channel = normalizeMessageChannel(params.target.channel) ?? params.target.channel;
+  const adapterPayload = channel
+    ? params.resolveRenderer(resolveChannelApprovalAdapter(getChannelPlugin(channel)))?.(
+        params.renderParams,
+      )
+    : null;
+  return adapterPayload ?? params.buildFallback();
+}
+
 function buildExecPendingPayload(params: {
   cfg: OpenClawConfig;
   request: ExecApprovalRequest;
   target: ForwardTarget;
   nowMs: number;
 }): ReplyPayload {
-  const channel = normalizeMessageChannel(params.target.channel) ?? params.target.channel;
-  const pluginPayload = channel
-    ? resolveChannelApprovalAdapter(getChannelPlugin(channel))?.render?.exec?.buildPendingPayload?.(
-        {
-          cfg: params.cfg,
-          request: params.request,
-          target: params.target,
-          nowMs: params.nowMs,
-        },
-      )
-    : null;
-  if (pluginPayload) {
-    return pluginPayload;
-  }
-  return buildApprovalPendingReplyPayload({
-    approvalId: params.request.id,
-    approvalSlug: params.request.id.slice(0, 8),
-    text: buildRequestMessage(params.request, params.nowMs),
-    agentId: params.request.request.agentId ?? null,
-    allowedDecisions: resolveExecApprovalRequestAllowedDecisions(params.request.request),
-    sessionKey: params.request.request.sessionKey ?? null,
+  return buildApprovalRenderPayload({
+    target: params.target,
+    renderParams: params,
+    resolveRenderer: (adapter) => adapter?.render?.exec?.buildPendingPayload,
+    buildFallback: () =>
+      buildApprovalPendingReplyPayload({
+        approvalId: params.request.id,
+        approvalSlug: params.request.id.slice(0, 8),
+        text: buildRequestMessage(params.request, params.nowMs),
+        agentId: params.request.request.agentId ?? null,
+        allowedDecisions: resolveExecApprovalRequestAllowedDecisions(params.request.request),
+        sessionKey: params.request.request.sessionKey ?? null,
+      }),
   });
 }
 
@@ -376,23 +410,16 @@ function buildExecResolvedPayload(params: {
   resolved: ExecApprovalResolved;
   target: ForwardTarget;
 }): ReplyPayload {
-  const channel = normalizeMessageChannel(params.target.channel) ?? params.target.channel;
-  const pluginPayload = channel
-    ? resolveChannelApprovalAdapter(
-        getChannelPlugin(channel),
-      )?.render?.exec?.buildResolvedPayload?.({
-        cfg: params.cfg,
-        resolved: params.resolved,
-        target: params.target,
-      })
-    : null;
-  if (pluginPayload) {
-    return pluginPayload;
-  }
-  return buildApprovalResolvedReplyPayload({
-    approvalId: params.resolved.id,
-    approvalSlug: params.resolved.id.slice(0, 8),
-    text: buildResolvedMessage(params.resolved),
+  return buildApprovalRenderPayload({
+    target: params.target,
+    renderParams: params,
+    resolveRenderer: (adapter) => adapter?.render?.exec?.buildResolvedPayload,
+    buildFallback: () =>
+      buildApprovalResolvedReplyPayload({
+        approvalId: params.resolved.id,
+        approvalSlug: params.resolved.id.slice(0, 8),
+        text: buildResolvedMessage(params.resolved),
+      }),
   });
 }
 
@@ -402,24 +429,16 @@ function buildPluginPendingPayload(params: {
   target: ForwardTarget;
   nowMs: number;
 }): ReplyPayload {
-  const channel = normalizeMessageChannel(params.target.channel) ?? params.target.channel;
-  const adapterPayload = channel
-    ? resolveChannelApprovalAdapter(
-        getChannelPlugin(channel),
-      )?.render?.plugin?.buildPendingPayload?.({
-        cfg: params.cfg,
+  return buildApprovalRenderPayload({
+    target: params.target,
+    renderParams: params,
+    resolveRenderer: (adapter) => adapter?.render?.plugin?.buildPendingPayload,
+    buildFallback: () =>
+      buildPluginApprovalPendingReplyPayload({
         request: params.request,
-        target: params.target,
         nowMs: params.nowMs,
-      })
-    : null;
-  if (adapterPayload) {
-    return adapterPayload;
-  }
-  return buildPluginApprovalPendingReplyPayload({
-    request: params.request,
-    nowMs: params.nowMs,
-    text: buildPluginApprovalRequestMessage(params.request, params.nowMs),
+        text: buildPluginApprovalRequestMessage(params.request, params.nowMs),
+      }),
   });
 }
 
@@ -428,21 +447,14 @@ function buildPluginResolvedPayload(params: {
   resolved: PluginApprovalResolved;
   target: ForwardTarget;
 }): ReplyPayload {
-  const channel = normalizeMessageChannel(params.target.channel) ?? params.target.channel;
-  const adapterPayload = channel
-    ? resolveChannelApprovalAdapter(
-        getChannelPlugin(channel),
-      )?.render?.plugin?.buildResolvedPayload?.({
-        cfg: params.cfg,
+  return buildApprovalRenderPayload({
+    target: params.target,
+    renderParams: params,
+    resolveRenderer: (adapter) => adapter?.render?.plugin?.buildResolvedPayload,
+    buildFallback: () =>
+      buildPluginApprovalResolvedReplyPayload({
         resolved: params.resolved,
-        target: params.target,
-      })
-    : null;
-  if (adapterPayload) {
-    return adapterPayload;
-  }
-  return buildPluginApprovalResolvedReplyPayload({
-    resolved: params.resolved,
+      }),
   });
 }
 
@@ -659,31 +671,37 @@ function createApprovalHandlers<
   return { handleRequested, handleResolved, stop };
 }
 
-const execApprovalStrategy: ApprovalStrategy<ExecApprovalRequest, ExecApprovalResolved> = {
+function createApprovalStrategy<
+  TRequest extends { id: string; request: ApprovalRouteRequestFields; expiresAtMs: number },
+  TResolved extends { id: string; request?: ApprovalRouteRequestFields | null },
+>(params: {
+  kind: ApprovalKind;
+  config: (cfg: OpenClawConfig) => ExecApprovalForwardingConfig | undefined;
+  buildExpiredText: (request: TRequest) => string;
+  buildPendingPayload: (
+    params: ApprovalPendingRenderContext<TRequest, ApprovalRouteRequest>,
+  ) => ReplyPayload;
+  buildResolvedPayload: (
+    params: ApprovalResolvedRenderContext<TResolved, ApprovalRouteRequest>,
+  ) => ReplyPayload;
+}): ApprovalStrategy<TRequest, TResolved> {
+  return {
+    kind: params.kind,
+    config: params.config,
+    getRequestId: (request) => request.id,
+    getResolvedId: (resolved) => resolved.id,
+    getExpiresAtMs: (request) => request.expiresAtMs,
+    getRouteRequestFromRequest: (request) => extractApprovalRouteRequest(request.request) ?? {},
+    getRouteRequestFromResolved: (resolved) => extractApprovalRouteRequest(resolved.request),
+    buildExpiredText: params.buildExpiredText,
+    buildPendingPayload: params.buildPendingPayload,
+    buildResolvedPayload: params.buildResolvedPayload,
+  };
+}
+
+const execApprovalStrategy = createApprovalStrategy<ExecApprovalRequest, ExecApprovalResolved>({
   kind: "exec",
   config: (cfg) => cfg.approvals?.exec,
-  getRequestId: (request) => request.id,
-  getResolvedId: (resolved) => resolved.id,
-  getExpiresAtMs: (request) => request.expiresAtMs,
-  getRouteRequestFromRequest: (request) => ({
-    agentId: request.request.agentId ?? null,
-    sessionKey: request.request.sessionKey ?? null,
-    turnSourceChannel: request.request.turnSourceChannel ?? null,
-    turnSourceTo: request.request.turnSourceTo ?? null,
-    turnSourceAccountId: request.request.turnSourceAccountId ?? null,
-    turnSourceThreadId: request.request.turnSourceThreadId ?? null,
-  }),
-  getRouteRequestFromResolved: (resolved) =>
-    resolved.request
-      ? {
-          agentId: resolved.request.agentId ?? null,
-          sessionKey: resolved.request.sessionKey ?? null,
-          turnSourceChannel: resolved.request.turnSourceChannel ?? null,
-          turnSourceTo: resolved.request.turnSourceTo ?? null,
-          turnSourceAccountId: resolved.request.turnSourceAccountId ?? null,
-          turnSourceThreadId: resolved.request.turnSourceThreadId ?? null,
-        }
-      : null,
   buildExpiredText: buildExpiredMessage,
   buildPendingPayload: ({ cfg, request, target, nowMs }) =>
     buildExecPendingPayload({
@@ -698,33 +716,14 @@ const execApprovalStrategy: ApprovalStrategy<ExecApprovalRequest, ExecApprovalRe
       resolved,
       target,
     }),
-};
+});
 
-const pluginApprovalStrategy: ApprovalStrategy<PluginApprovalRequest, PluginApprovalResolved> = {
+const pluginApprovalStrategy = createApprovalStrategy<
+  PluginApprovalRequest,
+  PluginApprovalResolved
+>({
   kind: "plugin",
   config: (cfg) => cfg.approvals?.plugin,
-  getRequestId: (request) => request.id,
-  getResolvedId: (resolved) => resolved.id,
-  getExpiresAtMs: (request) => request.expiresAtMs,
-  getRouteRequestFromRequest: (request) => ({
-    agentId: request.request.agentId ?? null,
-    sessionKey: request.request.sessionKey ?? null,
-    turnSourceChannel: request.request.turnSourceChannel ?? null,
-    turnSourceTo: request.request.turnSourceTo ?? null,
-    turnSourceAccountId: request.request.turnSourceAccountId ?? null,
-    turnSourceThreadId: request.request.turnSourceThreadId ?? null,
-  }),
-  getRouteRequestFromResolved: (resolved) =>
-    resolved.request
-      ? {
-          agentId: resolved.request.agentId ?? null,
-          sessionKey: resolved.request.sessionKey ?? null,
-          turnSourceChannel: resolved.request.turnSourceChannel ?? null,
-          turnSourceTo: resolved.request.turnSourceTo ?? null,
-          turnSourceAccountId: resolved.request.turnSourceAccountId ?? null,
-          turnSourceThreadId: resolved.request.turnSourceThreadId ?? null,
-        }
-      : null,
   buildExpiredText: buildPluginApprovalExpiredMessage,
   buildPendingPayload: ({ cfg, request, target, nowMs }) =>
     buildPluginPendingPayload({
@@ -739,7 +738,7 @@ const pluginApprovalStrategy: ApprovalStrategy<PluginApprovalRequest, PluginAppr
       resolved,
       target,
     }),
-};
+});
 
 export function createExecApprovalForwarder(
   deps: ExecApprovalForwarderDeps = {},
diff --git a/src/mcp/channel-bridge.ts b/src/mcp/channel-bridge.ts
index cf5794efaed..13da5f16912 100644
--- a/src/mcp/channel-bridge.ts
+++ b/src/mcp/channel-bridge.ts
@@ -1,9 +1,8 @@
 import { randomUUID } from "node:crypto";
 import type { McpServer } from "@modelcontextprotocol/sdk/server/mcp.js";
 import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/config.js";
-import { buildGatewayConnectionDetails } from "../gateway/call.js";
+import { resolveGatewayClientBootstrap } from "../gateway/client-bootstrap.js";
 import { GatewayClient } from "../gateway/client.js";
-import { resolveGatewayConnectionAuth } from "../gateway/connection-auth.js";
 import { APPROVALS_SCOPE, READ_SCOPE, WRITE_SCOPE } from "../gateway/method-scopes.js";
 import type { EventFrame } from "../gateway/protocol/index.js";
 import { extractFirstTextBlock } from "../shared/chat-message-content.js";
@@ -84,25 +83,14 @@ export class OpenClawChannelBridge {
       return;
     }
     this.started = true;
-    const connection = buildGatewayConnectionDetails({
-      config: this.cfg,
-      url: this.params.gatewayUrl,
-    });
-    const gatewayUrlOverrideSource =
-      connection.urlSource === "cli --url"
-        ? "cli"
-        : connection.urlSource === "env OPENCLAW_GATEWAY_URL"
-          ? "env"
-          : undefined;
-    const creds = await resolveGatewayConnectionAuth({
+    const bootstrap = await resolveGatewayClientBootstrap({
       config: this.cfg,
+      gatewayUrl: this.params.gatewayUrl,
       explicitAuth: {
         token: this.params.gatewayToken,
         password: this.params.gatewayPassword,
       },
       env: process.env,
-      urlOverride: gatewayUrlOverrideSource ? connection.url : undefined,
-      urlOverrideSource: gatewayUrlOverrideSource,
     });
     if (this.closed) {
       this.resolveReadyOnce();
@@ -110,9 +98,9 @@ export class OpenClawChannelBridge {
     }
 
     this.gateway = new GatewayClient({
-      url: connection.url,
-      token: creds.token,
-      password: creds.password,
+      url: bootstrap.url,
+      token: bootstrap.auth.token,
+      password: bootstrap.auth.password,
       clientName: GATEWAY_CLIENT_NAMES.CLI,
       clientDisplayName: "OpenClaw MCP",
       clientVersion: VERSION,
diff --git a/src/pairing/setup-code.ts b/src/pairing/setup-code.ts
index f43052a0611..9a1ecb84963 100644
--- a/src/pairing/setup-code.ts
+++ b/src/pairing/setup-code.ts
@@ -1,14 +1,10 @@
 import os from "node:os";
 import { resolveGatewayPort } from "../config/paths.js";
 import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../config/types.js";
-import {
-  hasConfiguredSecretInput,
-  normalizeSecretInputString,
-  resolveSecretInputRef,
-} from "../config/types.secrets.js";
+import { normalizeSecretInputString, resolveSecretInputRef } from "../config/types.secrets.js";
+import { materializeGatewayAuthSecretRefs } from "../gateway/auth-config-utils.js";
 import { assertExplicitGatewayAuthModeWhenBothConfigured } from "../gateway/auth-mode-policy.js";
 import { isLoopbackHost, isSecureWebSocketUrl } from "../gateway/net.js";
-import { resolveRequiredConfiguredSecretRefInputString } from "../gateway/resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
 import { issueDeviceBootstrapToken } from "../infra/device-bootstrap.js";
 import {
   pickMatchingExternalInterfaceAddress,
@@ -268,94 +264,6 @@ function resolvePairingSetupAuthLabel(
   return { error: "Gateway auth is not configured (no token or password)." };
 }
 
-async function resolveGatewayTokenSecretRef(
-  cfg: OpenClawConfig,
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv,
-): Promise<OpenClawConfig> {
-  const hasTokenEnvCandidate = Boolean(resolveGatewayTokenFromEnv(env));
-  if (hasTokenEnvCandidate) {
-    return cfg;
-  }
-  const mode = cfg.gateway?.auth?.mode;
-  if (mode === "password" || mode === "none" || mode === "trusted-proxy") {
-    return cfg;
-  }
-  if (mode !== "token") {
-    const hasPasswordEnvCandidate = Boolean(env.OPENCLAW_GATEWAY_PASSWORD?.trim());
-    if (hasPasswordEnvCandidate) {
-      return cfg;
-    }
-  }
-  const token = await resolveRequiredConfiguredSecretRefInputString({
-    config: cfg,
-    env,
-    value: cfg.gateway?.auth?.token,
-    path: "gateway.auth.token",
-  });
-  if (!token) {
-    return cfg;
-  }
-  return {
-    ...cfg,
-    gateway: {
-      ...cfg.gateway,
-      auth: {
-        ...cfg.gateway?.auth,
-        token,
-      },
-    },
-  };
-}
-
-async function resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(
-  cfg: OpenClawConfig,
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv,
-): Promise<OpenClawConfig> {
-  const hasPasswordEnvCandidate = Boolean(resolveGatewayPasswordFromEnv(env));
-  if (hasPasswordEnvCandidate) {
-    return cfg;
-  }
-  const mode = cfg.gateway?.auth?.mode;
-  if (mode === "token" || mode === "none" || mode === "trusted-proxy") {
-    return cfg;
-  }
-  if (mode !== "password") {
-    const hasTokenCandidate =
-      Boolean(resolveGatewayTokenFromEnv(env)) ||
-      hasConfiguredSecretInput(cfg.gateway?.auth?.token, cfg.secrets?.defaults);
-    if (hasTokenCandidate) {
-      return cfg;
-    }
-  }
-  const password = await resolveRequiredConfiguredSecretRefInputString({
-    config: cfg,
-    env,
-    value: cfg.gateway?.auth?.password,
-    path: "gateway.auth.password",
-  });
-  if (!password) {
-    return cfg;
-  }
-  return {
-    ...cfg,
-    gateway: {
-      ...cfg.gateway,
-      auth: {
-        ...cfg.gateway?.auth,
-        password,
-      },
-    },
-  };
-}
-
-async function materializePairingSetupAuthConfig(
-  cfg: OpenClawConfig,
-  env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv,
-): Promise<OpenClawConfig> {
-  const cfgWithToken = await resolveGatewayTokenSecretRef(cfg, env);
-  return await resolveGatewayPasswordSecretRef(cfgWithToken, env);
-}
-
 async function resolveGatewayUrl(
   cfg: OpenClawConfig,
   opts: {
@@ -430,7 +338,13 @@ export async function resolvePairingSetupFromConfig(
 ): Promise<PairingSetupResolution> {
   assertExplicitGatewayAuthModeWhenBothConfigured(cfg);
   const env = options.env ?? process.env;
-  const cfgForAuth = await materializePairingSetupAuthConfig(cfg, env);
+  const cfgForAuth = await materializeGatewayAuthSecretRefs({
+    cfg,
+    env,
+    mode: cfg.gateway?.auth?.mode,
+    hasTokenCandidate: Boolean(resolveGatewayTokenFromEnv(env)),
+    hasPasswordCandidate: Boolean(resolveGatewayPasswordFromEnv(env)),
+  });
   const authLabel = resolvePairingSetupAuthLabel(cfgForAuth, env);
   if (authLabel.error) {
     return { ok: false, error: authLabel.error };
diff --git a/src/security/audit.ts b/src/security/audit.ts
index a32c7048356..ec16045b01c 100644
--- a/src/security/audit.ts
+++ b/src/security/audit.ts
@@ -128,6 +128,7 @@ let gatewayProbeDepsPromise:
   | Promise<{
       buildGatewayConnectionDetails: typeof import("../gateway/call.js").buildGatewayConnectionDetails;
       resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe: typeof import("../gateway/probe-auth.js").resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe;
+      resolveGatewayProbeTarget: typeof import("../gateway/probe-auth.js").resolveGatewayProbeTarget;
       probeGateway: typeof import("../gateway/probe.js").probeGateway;
     }>
   | undefined;
@@ -171,6 +172,7 @@ async function loadGatewayProbeDeps() {
   ]).then(([callModule, probeAuthModule, probeModule]) => ({
     buildGatewayConnectionDetails: callModule.buildGatewayConnectionDetails,
     resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe: probeAuthModule.resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe,
+    resolveGatewayProbeTarget: probeAuthModule.resolveGatewayProbeTarget,
     probeGateway: probeModule.probeGateway,
   }));
   return await gatewayProbeDepsPromise;
@@ -1214,29 +1216,18 @@ async function maybeProbeGateway(params: {
   deep: SecurityAuditReport["deep"];
   authWarning?: string;
 }> {
-  const { buildGatewayConnectionDetails, resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe } =
+  const { buildGatewayConnectionDetails, resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe, resolveGatewayProbeTarget } =
     await loadGatewayProbeDeps();
   const connection = buildGatewayConnectionDetails({ config: params.cfg });
   const url = connection.url;
-  const isRemoteMode = params.cfg.gateway?.mode === "remote";
-  const remoteUrlRaw =
-    typeof params.cfg.gateway?.remote?.url === "string" ? params.cfg.gateway.remote.url.trim() : "";
-  const remoteUrlMissing = isRemoteMode && !remoteUrlRaw;
+  const probeTarget = resolveGatewayProbeTarget(params.cfg);
 
-  const authResolution =
-    !isRemoteMode || remoteUrlMissing
-      ? resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe({
-          cfg: params.cfg,
-          env: params.env,
-          mode: "local",
-          explicitAuth: params.explicitAuth,
-        })
-      : resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe({
-          cfg: params.cfg,
-          env: params.env,
-          mode: "remote",
-          explicitAuth: params.explicitAuth,
-        });
+  const authResolution = resolveGatewayProbeAuthSafe({
+    cfg: params.cfg,
+    env: params.env,
+    mode: probeTarget.mode,
+    explicitAuth: params.explicitAuth,
+  });
   const res = await params
     .probe({ url, auth: authResolution.auth, timeoutMs: params.timeoutMs })
     .catch((err) => ({
diff --git a/src/tui/gateway-chat.ts b/src/tui/gateway-chat.ts
index d3ebd5407e4..963f19246b7 100644
--- a/src/tui/gateway-chat.ts
+++ b/src/tui/gateway-chat.ts
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 import { randomUUID } from "node:crypto";
 import { loadConfig } from "../config/config.js";
-import { hasConfiguredSecretInput } from "../config/types.secrets.js";
 import { assertExplicitGatewayAuthModeWhenBothConfigured } from "../gateway/auth-mode-policy.js";
+import { resolveGatewayInteractiveSurfaceAuth } from "../gateway/auth-surface-resolution.js";
 import {
   buildGatewayConnectionDetails,
   ensureExplicitGatewayAuth,
@@ -17,7 +17,6 @@ import {
   type SessionsPatchResult,
   type SessionsPatchParams,
 } from "../gateway/protocol/index.js";
-import { resolveConfiguredSecretInputString } from "../gateway/resolve-configured-secret-input-string.js";
 import { GATEWAY_CLIENT_MODES, GATEWAY_CLIENT_NAMES } from "../utils/message-channel.js";
 import { VERSION } from "../version.js";
 import type { ResponseUsageMode, SessionInfo, SessionScope } from "./tui-types.js";
@@ -50,14 +49,6 @@ type ResolvedGatewayConnection = {
   allowInsecureLocalOperatorUi?: boolean;
 };
 
-function trimToUndefined(value: unknown): string | undefined {
-  if (typeof value !== "string") {
-    return undefined;
-  }
-  const trimmed = value.trim();
-  return trimmed.length > 0 ? trimmed : undefined;
-}
-
 function throwGatewayAuthResolutionError(reason: string): never {
   throw new Error(
     [
@@ -277,9 +268,6 @@ export async function resolveGatewayConnection(
   const env = process.env;
   const gatewayAuthMode = config.gateway?.auth?.mode;
   const isRemoteMode = config.gateway?.mode === "remote";
-  const remote = config.gateway?.remote;
-  const envToken = trimToUndefined(env.OPENCLAW_GATEWAY_TOKEN);
-  const envPassword = trimToUndefined(env.OPENCLAW_GATEWAY_PASSWORD);
 
   const urlOverride =
     typeof opts.url === "string" && opts.url.trim().length > 0 ? opts.url.trim() : undefined;
@@ -315,41 +303,34 @@ export async function resolveGatewayConnection(
   }
 
   if (isRemoteMode) {
-    const remoteToken = explicitAuth.token
-      ? { value: explicitAuth.token }
-      : await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
-          value: remote?.token,
-          path: "gateway.remote.token",
-          env,
-          config,
-        });
-    const remotePassword =
-      explicitAuth.password || envPassword
-        ? { value: explicitAuth.password ?? envPassword }
-        : await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
-            value: remote?.password,
-            path: "gateway.remote.password",
-            env,
-            config,
-          });
-
-    const token = explicitAuth.token ?? remoteToken.value;
-    const password = explicitAuth.password ?? envPassword ?? remotePassword.value;
-    if (!token && !password) {
-      throwGatewayAuthResolutionError(
-        remoteToken.unresolvedRefReason ??
-          remotePassword.unresolvedRefReason ??
-          "Missing gateway auth credentials.",
-      );
+    const resolved = await resolveGatewayInteractiveSurfaceAuth({
+      config,
+      env,
+      explicitAuth,
+      surface: "remote",
+    });
+    if (resolved.failureReason) {
+      throwGatewayAuthResolutionError(resolved.failureReason);
     }
-    return { url, token, password, allowInsecureLocalOperatorUi: false };
+    return {
+      url,
+      token: resolved.token,
+      password: resolved.password,
+      allowInsecureLocalOperatorUi: false,
+    };
   }
 
   if (gatewayAuthMode === "none" || gatewayAuthMode === "trusted-proxy") {
+    const resolved = await resolveGatewayInteractiveSurfaceAuth({
+      config,
+      env,
+      explicitAuth,
+      surface: "local",
+    });
     return {
       url,
-      token: explicitAuth.token ?? envToken,
-      password: explicitAuth.password ?? envPassword,
+      token: resolved.token,
+      password: resolved.password,
       allowInsecureLocalOperatorUi,
     };
   }
@@ -360,93 +341,19 @@ export async function resolveGatewayConnection(
     throwGatewayAuthResolutionError(err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err));
   }
 
-  const defaults = config.secrets?.defaults;
-  const hasConfiguredToken = hasConfiguredSecretInput(config.gateway?.auth?.token, defaults);
-  const hasConfiguredPassword = hasConfiguredSecretInput(config.gateway?.auth?.password, defaults);
-  if (gatewayAuthMode === "password") {
-    const localPassword =
-      explicitAuth.password || envPassword
-        ? { value: explicitAuth.password ?? envPassword }
-        : await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
-            value: config.gateway?.auth?.password,
-            path: "gateway.auth.password",
-            env,
-            config,
-          });
-    const password = explicitAuth.password ?? envPassword ?? localPassword.value;
-    if (!password) {
-      throwGatewayAuthResolutionError(
-        localPassword.unresolvedRefReason ?? "Missing gateway auth password.",
-      );
-    }
-    return {
-      url,
-      token: explicitAuth.token ?? envToken,
-      password,
-      allowInsecureLocalOperatorUi,
-    };
+  const resolved = await resolveGatewayInteractiveSurfaceAuth({
+    config,
+    env,
+    explicitAuth,
+    surface: "local",
+  });
+  if (resolved.failureReason) {
+    throwGatewayAuthResolutionError(resolved.failureReason);
   }
-
-  const resolveToken = async () => {
-    const localToken = explicitAuth.token
-      ? { value: explicitAuth.token }
-      : await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
-          value: config.gateway?.auth?.token,
-          path: "gateway.auth.token",
-          env,
-          config,
-        });
-    const token = explicitAuth.token ?? localToken.value ?? envToken;
-    if (!token) {
-      throwGatewayAuthResolutionError(
-        localToken.unresolvedRefReason ?? "Missing gateway auth token.",
-      );
-    }
-    return token;
-  };
-
-  if (gatewayAuthMode === "token") {
-    const token = await resolveToken();
-    return {
-      url,
-      token,
-      password: explicitAuth.password ?? envPassword,
-      allowInsecureLocalOperatorUi,
-    };
-  }
-
-  const passwordCandidate = explicitAuth.password ?? envPassword;
-  const shouldUsePassword =
-    Boolean(passwordCandidate) || (hasConfiguredPassword && !hasConfiguredToken);
-
-  if (shouldUsePassword) {
-    const localPassword = passwordCandidate
-      ? { value: passwordCandidate }
-      : await resolveConfiguredSecretInputString({
-          value: config.gateway?.auth?.password,
-          path: "gateway.auth.password",
-          env,
-          config,
-        });
-    const password = explicitAuth.password ?? localPassword.value ?? envPassword;
-    if (!password) {
-      throwGatewayAuthResolutionError(
-        localPassword.unresolvedRefReason ?? "Missing gateway auth password.",
-      );
-    }
-    return {
-      url,
-      token: explicitAuth.token ?? envToken,
-      password,
-      allowInsecureLocalOperatorUi,
-    };
-  }
-
-  const token = await resolveToken();
   return {
     url,
-    token,
-    password: explicitAuth.password ?? envPassword,
+    token: resolved.token,
+    password: resolved.password,
     allowInsecureLocalOperatorUi,
   };
 }